7.1: Context of 19th Century Politics

• Industrial Revolution: major economic and social changes

• Nationalism: rise of nation-states and emphasis on national identity

• Imperialism: expansion of European powers into Africa and Asia

• Liberalism: emphasis on individual rights and limited government

• Conservatism: emphasis on tradition and social hierarchy

• Marxism: critique of capitalism and call for socialist revolution

• Revolutions of 1848: series of uprisings across Europe for political reform

• Congress of Vienna: post-Napoleonic settlement to restore order in Europe

• Crimean War: conflict between Russia and Ottoman Empire, involving European powers

• American Civil War: conflict over slavery and states' rights in the United States

7.2: Nationalism

• Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the importance of a shared national identity, culture, and history. It is the belief that a nation should be governed by its own people, and that the interests of the nation should come before those of other nations.

Factors Contributing to the Development of Nationalism

• Enlightenment ideas: The Enlightenment emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms, which led to the questioning of traditional forms of authority and the emergence of new ideas about the role of the state.

• Industrialization: The growth of industry and the rise of capitalism led to the creation of new social classes and the emergence of new forms of economic and political power.

• Revolutionary movements: The American and French Revolutions inspired people to think about the possibility of creating new political systems based on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Spread of Nationalism

• Europe: Nationalism emerged in Europe during the 19th century, leading to the formation of new nation-states such as Italy and Germany.

• Asia: Nationalist movements emerged in Asia during the 20th century, leading to the creation of new nation-states such as India and Pakistan.

• Africa: Nationalist movements emerged in Africa during the mid-20th century, leading to the decolonization of many African countries and the formation of new nation-states.

• Latin America: Nationalist movements emerged in Latin America during the 19th century, leading to the formation of new nation-states and the reconfiguration of existing ones.

Impact of nationalism

• Formation of new nation-states: Nationalism led to the formation of new nation-states based on shared cultural, linguistic, and historical identities.

• Reconfiguration of existing nation-states: Nationalism also led to the reconfiguration of existing nation-states, as minority groups sought greater autonomy or independence.

• Conflict and violence: Nationalism has also been associated with conflict and violence, as different groups compete for control over territory and resources.

• Globalization: Nationalism has been challenged by the forces of globalization, which have led to the creation of new forms of identity and the erosion of traditional national boundaries.

Rise in Anti-Semitism

• Anti-Semitism is the hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews. It has been a persistent problem throughout history, and it is on the rise again in the context of nationalism. Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the importance of the nation-state and the promotion of its interests above all else.

Causes of the Rise in Anti-Semitism in Nationalism

• Scapegoating: Nationalists often blame Jews for the problems of their country, such as economic struggles or political instability. This scapegoating can lead to increased hostility towards Jews.

• Fear of the Other: Nationalists often view Jews as outsiders who do not belong in their country. This fear of the other can lead to increased prejudice and discrimination.

• Conspiracy Theories: Nationalists often believe in conspiracy theories that portray Jews as a powerful and secretive group that controls the world. These conspiracy theories can lead to increased hostility towards Jews.

Effects of the Rise in Anti-Semitism in Nationalism

• Violence: Anti-Semitic rhetoric can lead to violence against Jews, including hate crimes and acts of terrorism.

• Discrimination: Anti-Semitic attitudes can lead to discrimination against Jews in employment, housing, and education.

• Isolation: Anti-Semitic attitudes can lead to the isolation of Jews from the rest of society, making it difficult for them to fully participate in their communities.

Independence Movements

• The American Revolution, which resulted in the United States gaining independence from Great Britain in 1783.

• The Indian independence movement, which led to India gaining independence from British rule in 1947.

• The African independence movements, which resulted in many African countries gaining independence from European colonial powers in the mid-20th century.

Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary

• The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary was a political entity that existed from 1867 to 1918.

  • It was formed by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which established the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary as two separate and equal states within a single monarchy.

• The Austro-Hungarian Empire was created in 1804 as the Austrian Empire, which was a multinational state that included various ethnic groups.

  • However, the empire faced challenges from nationalist movements that sought greater autonomy or independence for their respective regions.

  • In 1867, the Compromise was reached between the Austrian and Hungarian governments, which granted Hungary more political power and autonomy in exchange for its loyalty to the monarchy.

• The Dual Monarchy was a complex system of government that involved two separate parliaments, cabinets, and administrations for Austria and Hungary.

  • The monarch, who was the same person for both states, had limited powers and was mostly a figurehead.

  • The two states shared a common foreign policy, defense, and finance, but had their own laws, languages, and cultural identities.

• The Dual Monarchy faced several challenges during its existence, including tensions between the Austrian and Hungarian governments, conflicts with other ethnic groups within the empire, and external pressures from other European powers.

  • The empire also struggled with economic and social issues, such as poverty, industrialization, and nationalism.

• The Dual Monarchy came to an end in 1918, following the defeat of Austria-Hungary in World War I.

  • The empire was dissolved and replaced by several independent states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.

  • The legacy of the Dual Monarchy continues to influence the politics and culture of Central Europe today.

Alliances of WWI

• Prior to the outbreak of World War I, Europe was divided into two major alliances: the Triple Entente and the Central Powers.

• The Triple Entente consisted of France, Russia, and the United Kingdom.

• The Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (which later switched sides to join the Triple Entente).

• These alliances were formed as a result of the complex web of treaties and agreements between European nations, which were intended to provide mutual protection and support in the event of war.

• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in 1914 was the spark that ignited the war, as it led to a series of diplomatic and military actions that ultimately drew the major European powers into conflict.

• The alliances played a significant role in the course of the war, as they determined which countries would fight on which side and helped to shape the strategies and tactics of the various armies.

• The war ultimately ended with the defeat of the Central Powers and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which imposed harsh penalties on Germany and set the stage for the rise of Nazi Germany and the outbreak of World War II.

7.3: National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions

Unification of Italy

• Italy was a collection of small states and kingdoms before the 19th century.

• The unification of Italy was a political and social movement that aimed to unify the various states into a single nation.

• The movement was led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, Camillo di Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel II.

• The process of unification began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna, which aimed to restore the pre-Napoleonic order in Europe.

• In 1848, a series of revolutions broke out across Europe, including in Italy, which led to the establishment of a number of republics.

• In 1859, Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, formed an alliance with France and defeated Austria in the Second Italian War of Independence.

• In 1860, Garibaldi led a campaign to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was successful.

• In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II as its king.

• The unification process was completed in 1870 when Rome was captured and became the capital of Italy.

• The unification of Italy had a significant impact on European politics and paved the way for the rise of Italian nationalism.

Unification of Germany

• Germany was a collection of small states before unification.

• In 1862, Otto von Bismarck became the Prime Minister of Prussia.

• Bismarck's goal was to unify Germany under Prussian leadership.

• In 1864, Prussia and Austria fought against Denmark and gained control of Schleswig and Holstein.

• In 1866, Prussia and Austria went to war, and Prussia emerged victorious.

• The North German Confederation was formed in 1867, with Prussia as its leader.

• In 1870, France declared war on Prussia, and the southern German states joined Prussia in the war.

• Prussia and its allies won the war, and the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871.

• Wilhelm I of Prussia became the first German Emperor.

• The unification of Germany led to the rise of a powerful nation in Europe.

• Germany became an industrial and military powerhouse, leading to tensions with other European powers.

• The unification of Germany also had a significant impact on the balance of power in Europe.

Diplomatic Tensions

• France and Germany

  • During World War I, France and Germany had diplomatic tensions due to their long-standing rivalry and territorial disputes.

  • The tensions were further exacerbated by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary, which led to the outbreak of the war.

  • Germany's invasion of Belgium, which was a neutral country, also angered France and led to their involvement in the war.

  • The war resulted in significant loss of life and damage to both countries, and it took several years for their diplomatic relations to improve.

• Austria and Hungary

  • Austria-Hungary was a dual monarchy consisting of two separate kingdoms, Austria and Hungary, ruled by a single monarch.

  • The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist in 1914 led to the outbreak of World War I.

  • Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, which led to a chain reaction of alliances and declarations of war among European powers.

  • During the war, Austria and Hungary faced diplomatic tension due to several factors:

    • Austria-Hungary's military failures on the Eastern and Italian fronts strained the relationship between the two countries.

    • Hungary, which had a large population and a strong economy, felt that it was not being given enough say in the war effort.

    • Austria's reliance on Germany for military and economic support also created tension with Hungary, which had closer ties to the Ottoman Empire.

    • The issue of nationalities within the empire also caused tension, as different ethnic groups sought greater autonomy or independence.

  • In 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, and Austria and Hungary became separate countries.

The Crimean War

• The Crimean War was fought from 1853 to 1856 between the Russian Empire and an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. Here are some key points about the war:

• Causes: The war was caused by a dispute between Russia and the Ottoman Empire over the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land. France and Britain joined the war to prevent Russia from gaining too much power in the region.

• Major Battles: The war was fought mainly in the Crimean Peninsula, where the Russians had a naval base at Sevastopol. The major battles of the war included the Battle of Alma, the Battle of Balaclava, and the Siege of Sevastopol.

• Technology: The Crimean War was the first major conflict to use modern technology, such as the telegraph, railways, and steamships. It was also the first war to be extensively covered by the media, with reporters like William Howard Russell sending back vivid accounts of the fighting.

• Impact: The Crimean War had a significant impact on European politics and military strategy. It exposed the weaknesses of the Russian Empire and led to reforms in the Ottoman Empire. It also paved the way for the unification of Italy and Germany by weakening the power of Austria.

• Casualties: The war was a brutal and deadly conflict, with an estimated 750,000 soldiers and civilians dying from battle wounds, disease, and starvation. The British suffered the most casualties, with over 20,000 soldiers dying from disease alone.

The Balkan Wars

• The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. These wars were fought between the Ottoman Empire and several Balkan states, including Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria.

• Causes

  • Nationalism: The Balkan states were seeking to gain independence from the Ottoman Empire and create their own nation-states.

  • Ottoman decline: The Ottoman Empire was in decline and was unable to maintain control over its Balkan territories.

  • Competition among Balkan states: The Balkan states were competing with each other for territory and influence in the region.

• First Balkan War (1912)

  • Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria formed the Balkan League and declared war on the Ottoman Empire.

  • The Balkan League was successful in defeating the Ottoman Empire and gaining control of most of its Balkan territories.

  • The Treaty of London was signed in 1913, which recognized the independence of Albania and gave most of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans to the Balkan League.

• Second Balkan War (1913)

  • Bulgaria, dissatisfied with the territorial gains of the First Balkan War, attacked Serbia and Greece.

  • Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Romania formed the Balkan League against Bulgaria.

  • The Balkan League was successful in defeating Bulgaria and the Treaty of Bucharest was signed, which reduced Bulgaria's territory and influence in the region.

• Consequences

  • The Balkan Wars weakened the Ottoman Empire and contributed to its eventual collapse.

  • The Balkan states gained independence and established their own nation-states.

  • The Balkan Wars increased tensions and rivalries among the Balkan states, which contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

7.4: Darwinism and Social Darwinism

Darwinism

• Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection in his book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859.

• Darwinism is the scientific theory that explains how species evolve over time through the process of natural selection.

• According to Darwinism, the fittest individuals in a population are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their advantageous traits to their offspring.

• Darwinism is based on scientific evidence and is widely accepted by the scientific community.

Social Darwinism

• Social Darwinism is a social theory that emerged in the late 19th century.

• It is based on the idea that the principles of natural selection can be applied to human societies and social classes.

• Social Darwinists believed that some races and social classes were inherently superior to others, and that the "survival of the fittest" should be applied to human society.

• Social Darwinism was used to justify imperialism, colonialism, and eugenics, and was often used to support racist and discriminatory policies.

• Social Darwinism is not based on scientific evidence and is widely discredited by the scientific community.

7.5: The Age of Progress and Modernity

• The Age of Progress and Modernity refers to the period of time between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by rapid industrialization, technological advancements, and social changes.

• Industrialization: The Industrial Revolution brought about the mass production of goods, leading to increased efficiency and economic growth. Factories and machines replaced traditional methods of production, and the rise of capitalism fueled the growth of businesses and corporations.

• Technological advancements: The Age of Progress saw significant advancements in technology, including the invention of the telephone, light bulb, and automobile. These innovations transformed the way people lived and worked, making life easier and more convenient.

• Urbanization: As people flocked to cities for work, urban areas grew rapidly. This led to overcrowding, pollution, and social problems, but also created new opportunities for cultural exchange and innovation.

• Social changes: The Age of Progress was marked by significant social changes, including the rise of the middle class, the women's suffrage movement, and the fight for workers' rights. These movements sought to address the inequalities and injustices of the time, and laid the groundwork for future social progress.

7.6: New Imperialism: Motivations and Methods

New Imperialism vs. Old Imperialism

• Old Imperialism

  • Took place from the 16th to the 18th century

  • Focused on establishing trading posts and controlling trade routes

  • Colonies were established for economic purposes

  • Indigenous people were often exploited for labor and resources

  • Religion played a significant role in colonization

  • Examples include Spanish colonization of the Americas and Portuguese colonization of Brazil

• New Imperialism

  • Took place from the late 19th to the early 20th century

  • Focused on acquiring territories for political and strategic reasons

  • Colonies were established for political and military purposes

  • Indigenous people were often subjugated and their cultures suppressed

  • Racism and Social Darwinism were used to justify imperialism

  • Examples include British colonization of India and French colonization of Indochina

• Key Differences

  • Old imperialism was primarily driven by economic interests, while new imperialism was driven by political and strategic interests

  • Old imperialism was often conducted through trading posts, while new imperialism involved the establishment of colonies

  • Old imperialism was often characterized by religious motivations, while new imperialism was characterized by racism and Social Darwinism

  • Old imperialism often allowed for some degree of indigenous autonomy, while new imperialism sought to fully subjugate indigenous peoples.

Motivations for New Imperialism

• Economic Interests: European powers sought to expand their markets and access to raw materials. They believed that colonies would provide them with new markets for their goods and sources of cheap labor and raw materials. This was particularly important as industrialization increased demand for resources.

• Nationalism: European powers were driven by a sense of national pride and competition. They believed that having colonies would increase their prestige and power on the world stage. This was particularly true for Germany, which was a relatively new and rapidly industrializing nation.

• Strategic Interests: European powers sought to establish naval bases and coaling stations around the world to protect their shipping lanes and maintain their military dominance. This was particularly important for Britain, which relied heavily on its navy to protect its global interests.

• Social Darwinism: European powers believed in the superiority of their own culture and saw it as their duty to "civilize" and "modernize" the peoples of their colonies. This was often used as a justification for imperialism and led to the exploitation and oppression of indigenous peoples.

• Religious Motivations: European powers also saw imperialism as a way to spread Christianity and "save" the souls of the peoples in their colonies. This was particularly true for France, which had a long history of missionary work in Africa and Asia.

Methods for New Imperialism

1. Military Force: The use of military force was a common method used by imperial powers to establish their dominance over weaker nations. European powers used their superior military technology to conquer and subjugate African and Asian nations.

2. Economic Exploitation: Imperial powers used economic exploitation to extract resources and wealth from their colonies. They established plantations, mines, and other industries to exploit the natural resources of their colonies. They also imposed high taxes on the local population and forced them to work in these industries.

3. Cultural Hegemony: Imperial powers used cultural hegemony to justify their domination over weaker nations. They claimed that their culture and civilization were superior to those of the colonized people. They imposed their language, religion, and customs on the local population, erasing their own cultural identity.

4. Diplomacy: Imperial powers used diplomacy to establish their influence over weaker nations. They signed treaties and agreements with local rulers, giving them control over their territories. They also used diplomacy to prevent other imperial powers from expanding their influence in the same region.

5. Propaganda: Imperial powers used propaganda to justify their imperialist policies to their own people. They portrayed their colonies as backward and uncivilized, in need of their help and guidance. They also used propaganda to demonize the local population, portraying them as savage and barbaric.

7.7: Imperialism’s Global Effects

Responses to European Imperialism

• Resistance

  • Many people resisted European imperialism through armed struggle, protests, and uprisings. In Africa, leaders like Samori Toure, Menelik II, and Yaa Asantewaa led resistance movements against European colonizers. In India, the Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a significant uprising against British rule.

• Diplomacy

  • Some countries responded to European imperialism through diplomacy. Japan, for example, realized the threat of European imperialism and modernized its military and economy to become a world power. China also tried to resist European imperialism through diplomacy, but its efforts were largely unsuccessful.

• Collaboration

  • Some people and countries collaborated with European colonizers. In Africa, some local leaders collaborated with European colonizers to gain power and wealth. In India, the British relied on local elites to govern the country.

• Nationalism

  • European imperialism also led to the rise of nationalism in many countries. People began to identify with their country and culture and sought to resist foreign domination. In Africa, nationalism led to the decolonization of many countries in the mid-20th century. In India, nationalism led to independence from British rule in 1947.

Rebellion as Response to European Imperialism

• The Boxer Rebellion in China (1899-1901): A response to the economic and political domination of foreign powers, particularly Britain and Japan.

• The Indian Rebellion of 1857: Also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, was a response to the British East India Company's exploitation of Indian resources and the imposition of British culture and religion.

• The Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya (1952-1960): A response to British colonial rule and the confiscation of land from Kenyan farmers.

• The Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962): A response to French colonial rule and the suppression of Algerian culture and language.

Effects on European Societies

• Economic Effects

  • Imperialism led to the exploitation of resources and labor from the colonized countries, which helped to fuel the industrialization of Europe.

  • The acquisition of new markets and sources of raw materials helped to boost the European economy.

  • The establishment of colonies also provided new investment opportunities for European businesses.

• Political Effects

  • Imperialism led to the expansion of European empires, which increased their power and influence in the world.

  • The competition for colonies and territories led to tensions and conflicts between European powers, which eventually led to World War I.

  • The establishment of colonial governments and bureaucracies helped to spread European political systems and values to other parts of the world.

• Social Effects

  • Imperialism led to the spread of European culture and values to other parts of the world.

  • The establishment of colonies led to the migration of Europeans to other parts of the world, which helped to spread European ideas and customs.

  • The exploitation of resources and labor from the colonized countries led to the impoverishment of many people in those countries.

7.8: 19th-Century Culture and Arts

Romanticism

• A cultural movement that originated in Europe in the late 18th century and lasted until the mid-19th century.

• Emphasized emotion, individualism, imagination, and nature.

• Rejected the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and logic.

• Celebrated the beauty of the natural world and the power of the individual imagination.

• Romantic literature often featured heroes who were rebels against society and its conventions.

• Romantic art often depicted dramatic and emotional scenes, such as storms, battles, and tragic love affairs.

• Romantic music emphasized emotion and individual expression, often featuring complex melodies and harmonies.

• Major Romantic writers include William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Byron.

• Major Romantic artists include Caspar David Friedrich, J.M.W. Turner, and Eugène Delacroix.

• Romanticism had a significant impact on literature, art, music, and philosophy, and helped to shape the cultural landscape of the 19th century.

The Birth of Modern Art

• Modern art refers to the art produced between the 1860s and the 1970s, which marked a period of significant change in the art world.

• The birth of modern art was a response to the changing social, economic, and political conditions of the time.

• The Industrial Revolution, urbanization, and the rise of capitalism led to a shift in the way people lived and worked, and artists began to reflect these changes in their art.

• The Impressionists, who emerged in the 1860s, were among the first to break away from traditional art forms and techniques.

  • They focused on capturing the fleeting effects of light and color in their paintings, using loose brushstrokes and bright, vibrant colors.

• Other movements that followed, such as Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, and Expressionism, continued to challenge traditional art forms and techniques.

• Modern art also reflected the changing social and political landscape of the time, with artists exploring themes such as alienation, individualism, and the impact of war.

• The birth of modern art was not without controversy, with many critics and members of the public rejecting the new styles and techniques.

• However, modern art paved the way for the development of new art forms and techniques, and continues to influence contemporary art today.

Women in Modern Culture

• Women have made significant strides in modern culture, breaking down barriers and challenging traditional gender roles.

• In the entertainment industry, women have gained more representation and recognition. They have become powerful voices in music, film, and television, and have used their platforms to advocate for gender equality and social justice.

• In literature, women have become more prominent as writers and characters. They have explored themes of identity, sexuality, and power, and have challenged the male-dominated canon of literature.

• In the art world, women have gained more recognition for their contributions. They have created powerful works that challenge societal norms and celebrate the female experience.

• Despite these advancements, women still face challenges in modern culture. They are often subjected to objectification and discrimination, and their voices are still underrepresented in many areas.

• It is important to continue to push for gender equality and to celebrate the contributions of women in modern culture. By doing so, we can create a more inclusive and equitable society for all.

7.9: Causation in 19th Century Perspectives and Political Developments

Determinism

• It is the belief that all events, including human actions, are ultimately determined by causes external to the will.

• This perspective was popularized by philosophers such as John Stuart Mill and Auguste Comte.

• In politics, determinism led to the idea that social progress could be achieved through scientific management and planning.

Positivism

• It is the belief that knowledge should be based on observable, scientific facts rather than metaphysical speculation.

• This perspective was developed by Comte and influenced by the scientific revolution.

• In politics, positivism led to the idea of a "scientific" approach to government, where policies were based on empirical evidence rather than ideology.

Historicism

• It is the belief that historical context is crucial to understanding events and ideas.

• This perspective was popularized by philosophers such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Karl Marx.

• In politics, historicism led to the idea that social change was driven by historical forces, such as class struggle, rather than individual will.

Political Developments

• These perspectives influenced political developments during the 19th century, including:

  • The rise of socialism and communism, which were based on historicist ideas about class struggle.

  • The growth of the welfare state, which was influenced by positivist ideas about scientific management.

  • The development of imperialism, which was driven by determinist ideas about the superiority of Western civilization.