Anatomy::study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

Physiology::Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities

Four major classes of biomolecules:: Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates, Nucleic Acids
Proteins::built from amino acids, fundamental component of structure and dynamic metabolic function in the cell
Lipids::no specific building blocks, long term energy molecule, structural component of the membrane bilayer, facilitator of cell-cell interactions
Carbohydrates::built from monosaccharides, structural molecule attaches on protein for cell recognition and energy storage
Nucleic Acids::built from nucleotides, unit for DNA (hereditary info) and RNA (protein synthesis)

Mitochondria example of structure/function::specialized folds of mitochondrial membrane leads to Increase in surface area for proteins that carry out mitochondrial respiration

Requirements for life::Maintaining boundaries, Movement, Responsiveness, Digestion, Metabolism, Excretion, Reproduction, Growth

There are 11 organ systems in the human body::Integumentary System, Skeletal System, Muscular System, Nervous System, Cardiovascular System, Endocrine System, Lymphatic System, Respiratory System, Digestive System, Urinary System, Male Reproductive System, Female Reproductive System

Integumentary System::Hair, skin, nails; offers protection and covering, synthesizes vitamin D and houses cutaneous(pain, pressure etc.) receptors and sweat/oil glands
Skeletal System::Joints and bones; protects and supports organs, provides a framework for the muscles to move, blood cells are formed within bones and minerals are stored inside bones
Muscular System::Muscles; allows manipulation of the environment, movement, and facial expression, maintains posture and reduces heat
Nervous System::Brain, nerves, spinal cord; Fast-acting control system, responds to internal and external changes by activating muscles and glands as needed
Cardiovascular System::Heart, blood vessels; transport blood which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc, heart pumps blood
Endocrine System::Glands, pancreas, reproductive organs; secrete hormones to regulate growth, reproduction, and nutrient use
Lymphatic System::Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus; Picks up fluid leaked by blood vessels and returns it to blood, disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream, houses white blood cells
Respiratory System::Nasal cavity, lungs, trachea; keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes CO2
Digestive System::Oral cavity, stomach, large intestine; breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
Urinary System::Kidney, bladder, urethra;eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body, regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of blood
Male Reproductive System::Penis, prostate, testis; Production of offspring,testis produce sperm
Female Reproductive System::Mammary glands, ovaries, uterus; Produces offspring, ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones

All cells comprise at least::plasma membrane, genetic material, and cytosolic fluid

Four major categories of tissue:: Connective, Muscle, Epithelial, Nervous

Connective::provides support/integrity for other tissues, has varied cell arrangement

Muscle::generates mechanical force, includes skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), cardiac (involuntary)

Epithelial::lines walls of open tubes, provides secretory and absorptive surfaces, basal and apical (bottom and top)

Nervous::glia provide protection nourishment and support to nerve cells, provides long-distance communication within the body

Anatomical position::hands at side, palms forward, feet together
Supine position::face up
Prone position::face down

Anterior (Cranial)::toward the front of the body
Posterior::toward the back of the body
Medial::closer to the midline that divides the body left and right
Lateral::Further away from the midline that divides the body left and right
Superior::closer to the head
Inferior::toward the feet
Proximal::Closer to the trunk (bigger part of the body)
Distal::Further from the trunk
Superficial::Closer to the surface of the body
Deep::Farther from the surface of the body

Transverse Section::divides body into upper and lower sections
Sagittal Section::Divides the body into left and right sections
Coronal Section::Divides body into anterior and posterior sections

Homeostasis::the processes that maintain steady conditions within the human body

Homeostatic set points::established thresholds required for physiological processes to maintain balance

Negative Feedback::The outcome of the feedback loop is a return to the homeostatic set point

Positive Feedback::The physiological response elicited by the stimulus acts to increase the original stimulus

Insulin regulation is an example of::negative feedback

Histology::the study of tissues

4 types of tissues:: Epithelial Connective Muscular Neural

Epithelial tissue::avascular sheet of cells that covers body surfaces or cavities

2 main forms of epithelial tissue:: Covering and lining epithelia (skin), Glandular epithelia (salivary glands)

Microvilli::Abundant on transport cells Dramatically increase surface area Found in intestinal lining, kidneys

Cilia::Beat in coordinated fashion Move fluid along surface Found in trachea, oviduct

Characteristics of epithelial tissues::Tightly packed (barrier, absorption/secretion, hemidesmosomes, desmosomes) Organized assembly (apical/basolateral surface, surfaces differ in function) Exhibit polarity (necessary for selective movement of molecules) Highly regenerative (often damaged)

Simple::single layer of cells

Stratified::2 or more layers of cells

Pseudostratified::single layer of cells that appears as more due to nuclei placement

Squamous::flat, scale-like

Cuboidal::box-like

Columnar::tall, rectangular-shaped

Simple Squamous::single layer of flat, disc-like cells flattened nuclei surface for filtration and diffusion located in: air sacs of lung, glomeruli, blood vessel/capillary lumens, body cavity linings

Simple Cuboidal::single layer of cube-like cells large, round nuclei responsible for secretion and absorption located in: ducts and glands, kidney tubules, ovary, thyroid

Simple Columnar::single layer of tall, rectangular cells elongated nuclei microvilli (absorption) and cilia (propulsion) common on apical surface function in absorption (digestive tract) and secretion (mucous, reproduction) located in: digestive tract lining, respiratory tract

Pseudostratified Columnar::single layer of columnar cells of different heights nuclei appear at different heights have appearance of multiple layers function in secretion and propulsion located in: male sperm duct, respiratory tract, large glands

Stratified Squamous::multiple layers of squamous cells on a basement membrane surface cells are dead, flat, and keratinized basal cells are cube-shaped and mitotically active form protection against abrasion and damage for tissue underneath located in: skin, lining of esophagus, lining of vagina, lining of mouth

Stratified Cuboidal/Columnar::Two or more layers of cuboidal or columnar cells Function in secretion located in: male sperm duct, sweat and mammary glands, pharnyx, male urethra

Transitional::Appears to be stratified squamous or cuboidal Basal cells are cuboidal Surface cells are rounded/squamous Stretch permitted, enabling storage of urine located in: ureter, bladder, urethra

Endocrine::Secrete hormones into local capillaries Exocrine = Secrete their product into a duct

Merocrine::Product secreted directly through plasma membrane by exocytosis

Apocrine::Product secreted by pinching off membrane, loss of cytoplasm

Holocrine::Product secreted by full cell rupturing

Connective Tissue Proper::Loose (Fibers create loose, open framework) & Dense (Fibers densely packed)

Fluid Connective Tissues::Blood (Contained in cardiovascular system) Lymph (Contained in lymphatic system)

Supporting Connective Tissues::Cartilage (Solid, rubbery matrix) Bone (Solid, crystalline matrix)

Osteoblasts/cytes::bone fibers

Fibroblasts/cytes::connective tissue proper fibers

Chondroblasts/cytes:: cartilage fibers

Adipocytes::fat tissue fibers

Blood Cells::immunity fibers

Collagen::abundant, cross-linked fibrils, rope-like, resist tension

Elastin::long/branched, can stretch/recoil, provides flexibility

Reticulin::short/thin, mesh-like, provide greater degree of movement than collagen

Characteristics of Connective Tissues::Protection, Structural Support Energy, Storage, Insulation Transporting Substances

Areolar::Loosely packed assembly of all fiber types, fibroblasts and immune cells, cushions organs, key immune mediators located in: support under epithelial layers and surrounding organs

Adipose::matrix crowded by tightly-packed adipocytes, serves to insulate and protect organs, provides energy storage depot located in: around major organs, within subcutaneous layer (under dermis)

Regular Dense Connective Tissue::Fibroblasts embedded within regularly-ordered assembly of collagen fibers, resists pulling stress located in: attaches muscles to bone (tendon), attaches bone to bone (ligament) Irregular Dense Connective Tissue::Irregularly-arranged collagen fibers with fibroblasts embedded within, resists force in many directions located in: dermis, joint capsules

Elastic Dense regular connective tissue::enriched with elastin fibers, ordered arrangement of elastin, allows for stretch and recoil of tissue located in: walls of arteries, walls of bronchial tubes

Blood::Erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets within a plasma matrix, transports oxygen, CO2, nutrients and other dissolved molecules throughout the body located in: arteries, veins and capillaries

Hyaline::flexible, firm gel secreted by chondroblasts, embedded in lacunae, cushions supports and reinforces other tissues and organs located in: nose, trachea, ribs, ends of long bones, embryonic skeleton

Elastic::enriched with elastin, has higher flexibility and stretch, allows for tissue to return to original shape located in: outer ear, epiglottis

Fibrocartilage::Firm hyaline matrix, with more organized collagen fibers, resists compressive force located in: components of joints with limited flexibility, menisci, public symphysis

Bone::calcified collagen matrix with embedded osteocytes, high degree of vascularity, calcium storage, attachment for muscles, spongy bone contains marrow, stem cells for blood information located in: skeleton Muscle Tissue::capable of contraction/shortening

3 types of Muscular Tissue::skeletal, cardiac, smooth

Skeletal Muscle::controlled by voluntary nervous system, moves and stabilizes the skeleton, contains elongated cells (fibers held together by loose connective tissue, contains many nuclei, possesses microscopic striations)

Cardiac Muscle::only in heart, short/branched fibers, single nucleus, striated, involuntary contraction

Smooth Muscle::short/tapering cells, no striation, involuntary contraction changes diameter of vessels/chambers (blood vessels, urinary bladder, digestive organs, uterus)

Nervous Tissue::Conduct electrical impulses, transfer process and store information, comprised of neurons and glial cells

3 parts of Nervous Tissue::Neurons, Glial Cells Location

Neurons::receive sensory information and carry it to the brain, transmit motor impulses from brain to effector organs, form synapses with one another

Glial Cells::provide structural support, protection and nourishment for neurons in the brain and spinal cord

Location of Nervous Tissue::brain, spinal cord, cranial and peripheral nerves

Functions of the integumentary system:: Protection, Sensation, Vitamin D production, Immunity, Body Temperature, Excretion

Cell types of the epidermis::Keratinocytes and Melanocytes

Keratinocytes::Main cell type of epidermis, Produce keratin intermediate filaments, Provide structure to skin, hair and nails, Water-proofing, dry tissue

Melanocytes::Produce pigments, Protects from harmful UV rays

Layers of the epidermis::Stratum Corneum, Stratum Lucidum, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum Spinosum, Stratum Basale

Stratum Corneum::15-30 layers of dead keratinocytes, lipid coating forms water-resistant layer

Stratum Lucidum::Layer of dead keratinocytes, only in thick skin, Contains translucent protein eleidin

Stratum Granulosum::3-5 rows of keratinocytes, large amounts of keratohyalin are produced

Stratum Spinosum::8-10 rows of keratinocytes, accumulation of keratohyalin, lamellar bodies

Stratum Basale::Single layer of newly-produced cuboidal cells, contains melanocytes and epidermal ridges

Functions of the epidermis:: Protection, Skin Color, Protection from UV Rays, Sensory Reception, Vitamin D Production

Protection of the epidermis::Dry surface is unacceptable for growth of most microorganisms, Langerhans cells are found in all but the stratum corneum (antigen-presenting cells that activate other immune system cells, first line of defense)

Skin Color and Protection from UV rays in epidermis::Melanocytes produce melanin from tyrosine in specialized organelles, Melanosomes are transferred to keratinocytes upon stimulation, Melanosomes in keratinocytes contribute to skin's pigmentation

Factors affecting pigmentation::type of melanin produced, how much the melanosomes are filled with melanin granules prior to transfer, number and size of melanosomes produced, how long the melanosomes persist in the keratinocytes

Sensory Reception in epidermis::tactile discs function as mechanoreceptors and are associated with fine touch and pressure, free nerve endings are associated with pain, itching, and tickling

Vitamin D production in epidermis::cells of the epidermis convert 7-dehydrocholesterol to cholecalciferol, Eventually this is converted to calcitriol, Calcitriol increases calcium absorption and bone mineralization

Layers of the dermis:: Papillary Layer and Reticular Layer

Papillary Layer::loose connective tissue made up of fine collagen and elastic fibers, associates with epidermis through dermal papillae and epidermal ridges, contains blood/lymphatic vessels and nerves that supply the epidermis, functions: support epidermis, regulate body temperature

Reticular Layer::densely-packed collagen fibers with some elastic fibers interspersed, toughest layer of skin, thick collagen bundles produce cleavage lines, contains blood vessels, nerves and other accessory structures

Functions of the dermis::Supports epidermis, Senses touch, pressure and vibration, Regulates blood flow to skin

How is the epidermis supported in the dermis?::provides oxygen and nutrients, maintains fluid balance

How does the dermis sense touch, pressure and vibration?::meissner's corpuscles: light touch, pressure and vibration, lamellated corpuscles: deep pressure and vibration, ruffini corpuscles: pressure and skin distortion

Hypodermis::deepest part of the integumentary system, Classified as 'subcutaneous' layer, Connects skin to underlying tissue, Serves as energy reserve, Contains larger blood vessels and nerves that supply the skin

Hairs are ______ structures::nonliving
Hair follicles::epidermal layers invaginate into the dermis
Stem cells divide to form _________ that grows::hair matrix

Functions of hair::Protection against entrance of foreign substances into body, Protection against UV radiation, Early warning system, Expresses emotional state by hair standing up

Features of hair follicle::Hair grows from cells at the base, Hair papilla contains connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves, Hair matrix is responsible for producing new hair

Structure of the hair shaft::Medulla, Cortex, Cuticle

Medulla::Cells contain soft keratin, Formed by cells closest to the hair matrix

Cortex::Cells contain hard keratin, Formed by cells near the edge of the hair matrix

Hair Cuticle::Cells contain hard keratin, Formed by cells at the edge of the hair matrix

Function of Nails::protect our fingertips and toes
Nail Cuticle::fold of skin that protects the nail matrix, Matrix produces new growth of the nail bed, Contains nerves, blood vessels, lymphatics

Glands associated with the integumentary system::Sebaceous and Sudoriferous

Sebaceous Glands::Secrete oily substance called sebum lubricates hair, Helps protect surface of skin, Prevents water loss and bacteria growth, Sensitive to hormonal changes, Classified as holocrine glands

Types of Sudoriferous Glands::Apocrine, Merocrine

Apocrine glands::Localized mainly in armpits and pubic regions, Secrete product into hair follicles, Product secreted used by bacteria, contributing to odor

Merocrine Glands::Far more numerous, Secrete product directly onto skin surface, Function in thermoregulation

Skin Cancers::Basal cell carcinoma, Squamous cell carcinoma, Malignant melanoma

Basal cell carcinoma::most common, least malignant, Originating in stratum basale, Stratum basale cells proliferate and slowly invade dermis and hypodermis, Cured by surgical excision in 99% of cases

Squamous cell carcinoma::second most common; can metastasize, found in more superficial layers, involves keratinocytes, usually is a scaly reddened papule on scalp, ears, lower lip, or hands

Malignant melanoma::most dangerous, usually begins from a mole, can metastasize through the lymphatic system

Burns::tissue damage caused by heat, electricity, radiation, or certain chemicals

Immediate threat of burns::dehydration and electrolyte imbalance

Rule of Nines::each body sectionis 9% of body surface

First degree burns::epidermal damage only
Second degree burns::epidermal and upper dermal damage (blisters)
Third degree burns::Entire thickness of skin involved, skin turns gray-white, cherry red, or black, no pain because of nerve damage

Burns are considered critical if::more than 25% of body has second degree burns, more than 10% of body has third degree burns, Face, hands, or feet bear third-degree burns

Treatment for burns::Removal of burned skin (Debridement), Antibiotics, Temporary covering, Skin grafts

Skin changes as it::ages

How does skin changes as it ages?::Epidermis gets thinner and harder to repair when damaged, Amount of collagen in dermis decreases, Elasticity of the tissue decreases, Cumulative UV exposure increases risk of skin cancer

Transverse sections divide the body into left and right parts::False

The elbow is distal to the shoulder::False

A tissue consists of groups of similar cells that have a common function and the extracellular fluid between the cells::True

Most epithelial tissues have excellent regenerative powers::True

In a negative feedback mechanism, the effectors response opposes the stimulus’ effect::True

Function of Muscular System::movement of the body as a whole

Function of nervous system::Fast acting control system for the body

Function of digestive system::Breaks down food for distribution by blood to the body’s cells

Function of Integumentary System::Excretes watery perspiration to help regulate body temperature

A many-layered epithelium with square-shaped cells would be classified as::stratified cuboidal

What is a vertical section through the body, dividing it into anterior and posterior regions called::Frontal

Secretions that are discharged directly into the blood are characteristic of::Exocrine glands

The tendency for physiological systems to stabilize internal conditions with respect to the external environment is called::homeostatic balance

Sebaceous glands are exocrine glands that secrete their products by the cell rupturing. This type of exocrine secretion is called::holocrine secretion