The Policymaking Process

• Agenda setting - identifying a problem as a political issue that needs to be addressed. The issue may be brought forward by citizens, interest groups, the media, or the government.

• Policy formulation - finding solutions to the problem by exploring alternative plans of action and developing proposals to solve the issue.

• Policy adoption - adopting a plan of action to address the problem, which may require the passage of legislation.

• Policy implementation - executing the plan of action by the appropriate agency or agencies.

• Policy evaluation - analyzing the policy and assessing its impact on the issue. It involves judging the effectiveness of the policy and making adjustments if needed.

Domestic Policy

Domestic policy refers to the social policies of the United States concerning areas such as crime prevention, education, energy, environment, healthcare, and social welfare.

• Crime prevention has traditionally been a state and local matter, but the federal government has become increasingly involved.

  • The FBI collects and reports evidence in federal law or crossing state borders.

• The DEA prohibits illegal narcotics from entering the United States and patrols U.S. borders.

  • The ATF administers laws on explosives and firearms and regulates alcohol and tobacco products.

• Education policy aims to ensure equal access to educational opportunities.

  • The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided federal funding to public school districts with low-income populations.

  • The Department of Education coordinates education policy.

  • The government provides loan and grant programs for college students.

  • The No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 requires states to administer proficiency tests in public schools to monitor student progress.

• Energy policy focuses on conservation, alternative, and renewable sources of fuel, global warming, and toxic waste disposal.

  • The Superfund was established in 1980 for the clean-up of toxic waste sites.

  • The government passed legislation aimed at protecting the environment in the 1950s, but it was not until the 1970s that Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to enforce environmental legislation.

• The Clean Air Acts of 1970 and 1990 were implemented to reduce air pollution.

• The Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 was designed to clean up the nation’s lakes and rivers.

• The Endangered Species Act provided government protection for species listed as endangered, and environmental impact statements required studies and reports of likely environmental impacts to be filed with the Environmental Protection Agency.

• Health care was a significant issue in the 1992 presidential election, and a controversial national health care program was passed by Congress in 2009.

  • The United States does not have a national healthcare system. Medicare provides hospitalization insurance for the elderly, and Medicaid provides public assistance in healthcare for the poor.

• Social welfare programs began during the New Deal era to provide government help against economic distress.

Economic Policy

• Economic policy refers to the government's efforts to improve the overall economic health of a nation through government spending and taxation policies.

• Fiscal policy, which involves the government's taxing and spending policies, is the responsibility of the President and Congress.

• Monetary policy, which involves controlling the money supply through the banking system, is the responsibility of the Federal Reserve.

  • The government raises revenue through the collection of various taxes, including individual income taxes, corporate income taxes, social insurance taxes, excise taxes, customs duties, and estate and gift taxes.

  • The government also raises revenue through the sale of government securities by the Federal Reserve and through the collection of fees for services provided.

  • Government spending can be discretionary or nondiscretionary (mandatory).

    • Discretionary spending is spending about which government planners may make choices, while non-discretionary spending is required by existing laws for current programs.

• Discretionary spending includes defense spending, education, student loans, scientific research, environmental clean-up, law enforcement, disaster aid, and foreign aid.

• Non-Discretionary spending includes interest on the national debt and social welfare and entitlement programs such as Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, veterans' pensions, and unemployment insurance.

  • In recent years, the percentage of non-discretionary spending has grown while the percentage of discretionary spending has decreased.

• The federal budget indicates the amount of money the federal government expects to receive and authorizes government spending for a fiscal year (October 1 to September 30).

  • The process of preparing the federal budget takes about 18 months and involves several steps.

  • Federal agencies submit detailed estimates of their needs for the coming fiscal year to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).

  • The OMB holds meetings with representatives from various agencies to combine all requests into a single budget package, which the President submits to Congress in January or February.

• Congress debates and often modifies the President's proposal.

  • The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) provides Congress with economic data, and Congressional committees hold hearings, analyze the budget proposals, and offer budget resolutions to their respective houses (which must be passed by September 15).

• The Appropriations Committee for each house submits bills to authorize spending.

  • Congress sends appropriations bills to the President for approval.

  • If no budget is approved, Congress must pass temporary emergency funding or the government will shut down.

Foreign and Defense Policy

• Foreign policy involves strategies and procedures for dealing with other nations to maintain peaceful relations through diplomatic, military, or trade relations.

  • The president is often considered the leader in the development of foreign policy due to constitutional powers, historical precedent, and institutional advantages of the executive.

• Defense policy is the role of the military establishment in providing for the defense of the nation.

• The Department of State is the major organization for carrying out foreign policy, and the Department of Defense provides military information to the president.

• The National Security Council includes the president:

  • The vice president

  • The secretaries of state and defense

  • The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

  • The director of the Central Intelligence Agency

  • The president's national security advisor

• The United States Information Agency helps keep the world informed about America, the American way of life, and American views on world problems.

• The Central Intelligence Agency is responsible for gathering secret information essential to national defense.

• Congress plays a major role in the development of foreign policy, including making recommendations to Congress and the president on foreign relations, approving treaties and ambassador nominations, and approving spending for national defense.

• Current foreign policy issues include nuclear proliferation, terrorism, international trade, and how to manage conflicts abroad.

• The president has significant power in foreign policy, but it is not exclusive.

  • Congress also plays an essential role in shaping foreign policy, and the Supreme Court can affect foreign policy through its interpretations of the law.