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The Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)
The Elizabethan Age, spanning from 1558 to 1603, is one of the most iconic periods in English history. It is named after Queen Elizabeth I, the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. This era witnessed significant developments in politics, culture, exploration, and the arts.
Queen Elizabeth I
was born on September 7, 1533, the daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.
Her mother was executed when Elizabeth was just two years old.
Elizabeth's legitimacy was questioned during the reigns of her half-siblings, Mary I and Edward VI.
May 19, 1536
After having accused Anne Boleyn of infidelity and treason, Henry has her put to death at the Tower of London.
Soon after the execution Henry marries Jane Seymour, she then later give birth to a son named Edward
September 7, 1553
Elizabeth was born in Greenwich, England to her father Tudor King Henry VIII and her mother, Anne Boleyn (Henry’s second wife)
In order to dissolve his marriage with his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, Henry had separated England from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church
Catherine of Aragon had only one surviving child named Mary
The king’s ardent hope was that Anne Boleyn would give birth to a male heir, so the birth of Elizabeth is a bitter disappointment to him.
1547
Upon Henry’s death on January 28, Edward succeeds to the throne as Edward VI.
As a result of his youth, the government is run by regents during his reign.
Both Elizabeth and Edward are brought up as followers of the Church of England, while their half-sister Mary is brought up as a Roman Catholic
1553-1554
Edward VI dies on July 6, 1553. Mary becomes queen and restores Roman Catholicism as England’s state religion.
Mary suspects Elizabeth of plotting with the Protestants to gain the throne and has her imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1554.
No conclusive evidence of treason by Elizabeth emerges, however, and she is released after two months.
Mary I was nicknamed “Bloody Mary” because of her harsh treatment of Protestants in England.
(1558) Elizabeth I is crowned as Queen
Elizabeth became queen on November 17, 1558, following the death of her sister Mary I.
She is 25 years old
She has received a good education and is well prepared to rule.
Her reign marked the beginning of the Elizabethan era.
She reestablishes the independent Church of England.
Her cousin, Mary Stuart (Catholic Queen of Scotland) - Mary, Queen of Scots is next in line to the throne.
(1559) Elizabeth and the Religious Settlement
This was a significant event in English history, marking the establishment of a compromise in religious policies during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.
The settlement was a response to the religious turmoil that characterized the preceding reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary I.
Queen Elizabeth’s father, Henry VII broke away from the Catholic Church and separated the church of England from Papal authority in 1532 in order to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon which led to religious unrest in England.
Act of Supremacy – which stated that Elizabeth was Head of the Church.
Act of Uniformity – which set out expectations for church appearances and church services.
The Act of Uniformity established the Book of Common Prayer, a compromise text that could be acceptable to both moderate Catholics and Protestants.
Royal Injunctions – a set of instructions reinforcing the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity.
Retention of Catholic Rituals
Elizabeth retained certain elements of Catholic ritual and ceremony in the Church of England.
The use of vestments, the sign of the cross, and the elevation of the host during communion were allowed, showing a willingness to accommodate Catholic practices
Toleration and Ambiguity
Elizabeth's settlement aimed for a "middle way" to reconcile both Catholic and Protestant factions.
The settlement intentionally left certain aspects ambiguous to allow for a broad range of beliefs within the Church.
Enforcement and Conformity
While the settlement allowed for a degree of religious diversity, there were still efforts to enforce conformity.
Non-conformists, whether extreme Catholics or Puritans, faced penalties or persecution.
Stability and Political Pragmatism
The Elizabethan Religious Settlement provided a degree of stability to the religious landscape of England.
Elizabeth's approach was politically pragmatic, seeking to avoid the religious conflicts that had plagued the country in previous reigns.
(1559) Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
It was signed on April 3, 1559, and it marked the end of the Italian Wars (also known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars) that had been ongoing for over 60 years.
The major parties involved in the treaty were the Habsburgs (led by Philip II of Spain) and the Valois (led by Henry II of France).
This peace treaty between England and France ended the war inherited by Elizabeth from her half-sister Mary I, who went to war alongside her Spanish husband Philip II in 1557.
Humiliatingly, Elizabeth had to confirm the loss of Calais, which had been an English possession since 1347.
Key provisions of the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis included:
Recognition of Territorial Changes:
France agreed to cede several territories to the Spanish Habsburgs, including the Duchy of Savoy and the regions of Piedmont and Corsica.
The French also relinquished control over several Italian territories, including the city of Calais, which had been under English control.
End of Hostilities in Italy:
The treaty brought an end to the long-standing conflict in Italy between the Habsburgs and the Valois. This conflict had involved various European powers and had been marked by shifting alliances.
Marriage Alliances:
As part of the treaty, two marriage alliances were arranged:
Elisabeth of Valois, the daughter of Henry II of France, married Philip II of Spain.
Margaret of Parma, the daughter of Charles V (Philip's father), married Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy.
Restoration of Prisoners and Hostages:
The treaty provided for the exchange of prisoners and hostages, with both sides agreeing to release captives.
(1560) Treaty of Edinburgh
This established a new Anglo-Scottish peace and also reconfirmed the agreement at Cateau-Cambresis. Elizabeth was eager to nullify the threat of the Auld Alliance (Scotland and France), which had been further reinforced by the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots and French King Francis II.
The treaty also stated that Mary would give up her claim to the English throne, although this was not formally agreed by Mary.
It was actually a series of three separate treaties negotiated between England and Scotland during the 16th century. The most notable of these treaties is the Treaty of Edinburgh of 1560, which played a significant role in the complex web of political and religious alliances during that period
It was a pivotal agreement that ended the conflict known as the Rough Wooing, a series of military campaigns conducted by the English Crown to force a marriage between Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry VIII's son, Edward.
(1563) Statute of Artificers
This aimed to ensure poor relief was collected. Anyone refusing to pay poor rates could be imprisoned and officials failing to organize poor relief could be fined.
It aimed to regulate labor relations and address the economic challenges faced by society during the 16th century.
This period witnessed changes in economic structures, with a transition from feudalism to a more commercial and market-oriented economy.
Key Provisions of Statue of Artificers:
Apprenticeships
Emphasized the importance of apprenticeships as a means of training individuals in various trades and crafts.
It sought to regulate the terms and conditions of apprenticeship agreements to ensure a skilled and disciplined workforce.
Wage Regulation
Sought to control wages by setting maximum wage rates for different occupations.
Employers were required to pay workers according to the prescribed rates, and deviations could result in penalties.
Working Conditions
Included provisions related to working hours and conditions, aiming to prevent exploitation of labor.
It specified the length of the working day and sought to ensure that workers were not subjected to excessive or unfair demands.
Settlement of Disputes
Mechanisms for resolving disputes between employers and workers were outlined in the statute.
Justices of the Peace were given the authority to adjudicate disputes and enforce the provisions of the statute.
Restrictions on Mobility
Certain restrictions were placed on the movement of workers to prevent them from seeking better employment opportunities outside their designated areas.
This was intended to maintain a stable workforce and prevent labor shortages in particular regions.
Penalties for Violations
Employers who violated the provisions of the statute could face fines or other penalties.
The statute aimed to enforce its regulations to ensure compliance with the established economic and labor standards.
(1566) Dutch Revolt
also known as the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648)
The Netherlands had been part of the Spanish empire since the 1550s. However, the Dutch had always governed themselves.
Philip II’s decision to reorganise the Dutch government and church angered both the Dutch Catholics and the Protestants. They began to revolt against the Spanish.
(1568) Genoese Loan and Mary Queen of Scots, flees from Scotland to England
Italian bankers from Genoa had lent Philip II money to fund his campaign in the Netherlands (which was trying to put down the Dutch Revolt).
Crucially, when the Spanish ships docked in English ports, the gold was seized by Elizabeth.
This increased tension between England and Spain.
Mary, Queen of Scots, flees from Scotland to England
Mary was forced to flee following her unsuccessful attempt to win back her Scottish throne.
Mary Stuart flees across the English border to ask for Elizabeth’s help.
Elizabeth is distrustful of Mary.
Some Catholics regard Mary as England’s rightful queen.
Elizabeth promptly has Mary taken into custody, where she will remain for the next 19 years.
She raised an army following her escape from prison but was defeated at Langside (Glasgow).
The imprisonment owed to her likely involvement in the murder of her second husband, Lord Darnley.
Her first husband, Francis II, had died in December 1560.
(1569) Revolt of the Northern Earls
Two influential Catholic families – the Percys and the Nevilles – plotted alongside the Duke of Norfolk to overthrow Elizabeth and replace her with the Catholic, Mary, Queen of Scots (who now resided in England).
Norfolk was also expected to marry Mary.
Elizabeth sent an army of 14,000 men to crush the revolt, which lasted around a month (November to December).
(1570) Pope Pius V excommunicates Elizabeth from the Catholic Church
This Papal Bull meant that the loyalty of English Catholics towards Elizabeth was now always in doubt and placed a wedge between the English Catholics’ monarch and their faith.
(1571) The Ridolfi Plot
Roberto Ridolfi was a spy of the Pope. He plotted a Spanish invasion of England, which would involve the killing of Elizabeth and the placing of Mary, Queen of Scots on the throne.
As with the 1569 plot, she would marry the Duke of Norfolk.
Norfolk was killed in 1572.
The plot was uncovered whilst Ridolfi was abroad (he never returned).
Mary was spared.
(1572) Vagabonds Act
To counter homelessness and the begging/criminal activity that sometimes accompanied this, a law was passed that stated that, if found, vagrants were:
to be whipped and have a hole drilled through each ear
if found a second time would be imprisoned
would be killed if found a third time.
However, the Act also established a national poor rate, made JPs (Justices of the Peace) keep registers of the poor and gave towns and cities the responsibility to find work for the able-bodied poor.
(1574) Catholic priests are first smuggled into England
With the Pope’s blessing, foreign Catholic priests were smuggled into England with the sole purpose of continuing recusancy amongst the English Catholics and undermining the influence of Protestantism.
(1575) Poor Relief Act
This focused on dividing the poor into the able-bodied and the impotent.
JPs (Justices of the Peace) provided the able-bodied with raw materials (like wool) to make items to sell.
Those who refused this were sent to prison.
(1576) The Spanish Fury and Pacification of Ghent
Spain’s forces in the Netherlands mutinied (as they hadn’t been paid by the now bankrupt Spanish government).
This led to a rampage of Spanish soldiers and the sacking of Antwerp.
Pacification of Ghent
The Spanish Fury united both the Dutch Catholics and Protestants, who demanded in response to the violence:
the expulsion of all Spanish troops from the Netherlands
political freedom and
an end to religious hostility via the Spanish Inquisition.
(1577 - 1580) Francis Drake circumnavigates the world
Elizabeth encourages exploration and voyages of discovery.
She provides financial support for Admiral Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the globe (1577–80).
Drake was the first English person to achieve this (and the second person in history at the time).
It was estimated that Drake returned with approximately £400,000 of Spanish treasure from regular raids of Spanish ports in South America.
In the 1580s, Walter Raleigh, one of her favorites at court, sends out several expeditions in an effort to establish an English colony in North America.
The name Virginia—in honor of the Virgin Queen, as Elizabeth is called—is given to the area explored in 1584 during one of these expeditions.
(1580) Francis Drake is knighted on the Golden Hind
This was an important symbolic gesture, which angered Philip II. He saw Drake as a pirate and therefore deemed Elizabeth’s act as deliberately provocative.
(1584) Treaty of Joinville
The French Catholic League signed this treaty with Philip II of Spain. The aim was to rid France of heresy (Protestantism).
This meant two of the most powerful European nations were now united against Protestantism, placing Elizabeth in a precarious position.
(1585) Treaty of Nonsuch
This significantly committed Elizabeth to support the Dutch rebels directly against the Spanish. She pledged to finance an army of 7,400 English troops and placed Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, in charge of them. Essentially, this meant England and Spain were now at war.
All Catholic priests are ordered to leave the country
With the seemingly imminent war between Spain only a matter of time, Elizabeth was determined to rid England of the ‘enemy within’. Catholic priests were ordered to leave so as not to influence the English Catholics with divided loyalties.
First English colony in Virginia established
This was viewed as significant because it was seen as a means to increase trade, to expand Protestantism and to use the area as a base for attacks on Spanish colonies in the New World. In this sense, the colonization of Virginia should be understood in relation to the wider conflict with Spain.
(1586) Treaty of Berwick
Elizabeth and James VI agreed to maintain Protestantism as their respective countries’ religion. James also pledged to help Elizabeth if invaded.
The treaty essentially allowed Elizabeth to focus on developing events in the Netherlands and not worry about protecting her northern border.
Surviving colonists abandon Virginia and return to England
The failure of the colonization was due to:
the resistance of the Native Americans;
conflict amongst the English settlers (who collectively had the wrong mix of skills to make the settlement a real success);
the loss of supplies via the damage incurred on The Tiger and the fact that the voyage set off too late for crops to be planted (causing dependence on the rightfully suspicious Native Americans).
Babington Plot
Philip II and the Pope supported the plot that would involve the invasion of England by the Duke of Guise.
The invasion would include the murder of Elizabeth and the placing of Mary, Queen of Scots on the throne.
Anthony Babington, an English Catholic, wrote to Mary about the plot.
The plot was uncovered by Sir Francis Walsingham, who intercepted and read Babington’s letters to Mary.
(1587) Mary, Queen of Scots, is executed
During the 19 years that Mary Stuart is Elizabeth’s prisoner, some English Catholics form plots to liberate her and to place her on the throne of England.
Mary’s clear awareness and support of the Babington plot led to her being sentenced to death in October 1586.
Elizabeth, however, did not sign the death warrant until February 1587 and Mary was beheaded.
Babington and other known plotters were hanged, drawn and quartered.
Colony is established at Roanoke
Despite the failure of 1585, another attempt to colonize Virginia took place.
Many colonists this time were poverty-stricken Londoners (it was felt they would be used to hard work and would therefore be happy to work for a new life in the New World).
Working for the British, Native American Manteo was placed in charge of the expedition by Sir Walter Raleigh.
Native American hostility occurred from the start, however John White (another leading colonist) sailed back to England to report on the problems being experienced.
The ‘singeing of the King’s beard’
Francis Drake led an attack at Cadiz on the Spanish fleet, who were preparing for an invasion of the English. The attack was a success. 30 ships were destroyed, as well as lots of supplies. This delayed the Spanish attack and gave the English more time to prepare (hence the attempted invasion of the Armada one year later in 1588).
(1588) Failure of the Armada
Catholic King, Philip II of Spain assembles a great fleet of ships called the Armada to attack England.
The Armada sails into the English Channel in July 1588.
July 31st: Battle of Plymouth – two Spanish ships were captured.
The English ships that meet them are smaller but possess superior speed and maneuverability.
In the fighting that ensues the English inflict terrible losses on their enemy.
The naval victory over the Spanish Armada is a high point of Elizabeth’s reign.
August 3rd - 4th: Spanish ships were outgunned and forced to move to Calais in France.
August 8th: Battle of Gravelines – fireships caused the Spanish fleet to scatter.
They never met with the Duke of Parma and were forced to sail around the British Isles.
Most of the fleet was then destroyed by storms.
(1590) English sailors land at Roanoke to find it abandoned
John White led another group to Roanoke, 3 years after the attempt to colonise it. However, the settlement was abandoned and no trace of the colonists was ever found.
(1590 - 1596)
England was experiencing the effects of the Renaissance during the Elizabethan Age, which began as a movement in Italy and then swept the rest of Europe in the 16th century.
Renaissance - “rebirth”, seen as a reaction to Classicism.
It inspired creators of the time to focus on human condition and individualism
Led to pioneering of various forms of arts and literary styles; development of the history play or the historical drama.
The first installment of Edmund Spenser’s poem The Faerie Queene (Books I–III) is published in 1590.
The second installment (Books IV–VI) appears in 1596.
The poem, an elaborate allegory dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, is one of the greatest long poems in the English language.
Among other great writers active during Elizabeth’s reign are Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe and, William Shakespeare.
(1599 - 1601)
Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of Essex, and one of Elizabeth’s favorites at court undertakes to defeat rebel forces in Ireland led by Hugh O’Neill, earl of Tyrone.
Essex’s campaign is unsuccessful.
He returns from Ireland against the queen’s orders and, after Elizabeth deprives him of his offices, attempts to raise an insurrection against her.
He is tried for treason and executed on February 25, 1601.
The construction of the Globe Theatre in 1599 marked a pinnacle in Elizabethan theater.
(1601) The Elizabethan Poor Law
also known as the Act for the Relief of the Poor, was a significant piece of legislation enacted during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in England.
It represented a comprehensive attempt to address the increasing social and economic challenges associated with poverty and destitution during the late 16th century.
Key Provisions of the Elizabethan Poor Law included:
Parish Responsibility
The law established a system where each parish was responsible for the care of its poor residents.
This was a departure from earlier practices where monasteries and local communities had assumed this responsibility.
Overseers of the Poor
Parish officials, known as overseers of the poor, were appointed to administer and distribute relief to those in need.
The overseers were tasked with collecting funds, often through a local poor rate or tax, to support the poor.
Deserving vs. Underserving Poor
The law distinguished between the "deserving poor" (those deemed worthy of assistance due to factors like age, illness, or disability) and the "undeserving poor" (those perceived as capable of work but unwilling to do so).
Different forms of relief were provided based on the perceived deservingness of the individual.
Workhouses and Apprenticeships
The law authorized the creation of workhouses where able-bodied paupers could be set to work.
Apprenticeships were encouraged as a means of providing practical skills and work experience to the poor.
Vagrancy and Begging
The law sought to address the issue of vagrancy and begging by encouraging local authorities to deal with able-bodied individuals who were deemed capable of work but were begging instead.
Religious Charity
The Poor Law reinforced the role of the Church in charity and relief efforts.
The local church and religious institutions were often involved in providing assistance to the poor.
(1603) Death of Elizabeth I
Elizabeth dies on March 24.
She is buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey.
Mary Stuart’s son, James VI of Scotland, succeeds Elizabeth on the English throne.
He is proclaimed James I of England