5.1: States of Consciousness—The Many Faces of Awareness

• Consciousness: An organism’s awareness of its external environment and internal mental processes.

  Disorders of Consciousness

• Waking Consciousness: A state of clear, organized alertness.

• Disorder of consciousness: A condition of awareness that is atypical (e.g., coma; persistent vegetative state).

  • Difficult to diagnose

• Persistent vegetative state: long-term waking state without any signs of awareness

  Altered States of Consciousness

• Altered state of consciousness (ASC): A condition of awareness distinctly different in quality or pattern from waking consciousness.

  • Everyone experiences an ASC

  • Ex. Fatigue, delirium, hypnosis, drugs, euphoria

  5.2 Hypnosis and Meditation: Relax…

  Theories of Hypnosis

• Hypnosis: State of consciousness characterized by focused attention, reduced peripheral awareness, and heightened suggestibility.

• Ernest Hilgard (1904-2001): created best-known state theory - Argued hypnosis caused a dissociative state or “split” in awareness.

  • Nonstate theorists argue that hypnosis is a blend of conformity, relaxation, imagination, obedience, and role-playing.

• Hidden observer: A detached part of the hypnotized person’s awareness that silently watches events.

  How Hypnosis Works

• Basic suggestion effect: The tendency of hypnotized persons to carry out suggested actions as if they were involuntary.

• Steps of Hypnosis:

  • Focus

  • Relax

  • Let go and accept

  • Use vivid imagination

• Hypnotizability: One’s capacity for becoming hypnotized.

  • 75% of people can be hypnotized and only 40% are good participants

  Effects of Hypnosis

• Effects of Hypnosis:

  • Physical ability

  • Memory

  • Amnesia

  • Pain relief

  • Sensory changes

• Hypnosis is more successful at changing subjective experiences than it is at modifying behaviors like smoking

  Meditation

• Meditation: Mental exercise for producing relaxation or heightened awareness.

  • Heightens awareness and produces relaxation by interrupting the typical flow of thoughts, worries, and analysis

• Mindful meditation: Mental exercise based on widening attention to become aware of everything experienced at any given moment.

  • Aim is to observe your own thoughts

• Concentrative meditation: Mental exercise based on attending to a single subject or thought.

• Mantra: Focus of attention in concentrative meditation

• Relaxation response: The pattern of internal bodily changes that occurs at times of relaxation. Opposes body’s fight or flight mechanism.

  • Good stress control

  • Physical benefits

  • Lowered heart rate and blood pressure, improves immune system

  • Fosters mental well-being

  5.3 Sleep: The Nightly Roller Coaster

  Sleep Patterns

• Biological rhythm: Any repeating cycle of biological activity, such as sleep and waking cycles or changes in body temperature.

  Stages of Sleep

• Normal Sleep Time: 7-8 hours

• Short sleep times: 5 hours or less

• Longer sleep times: 9 or more hours

  • Sleep declines throughout lifetime

• Electroencephalograph (EEG): Device that records electrical activity in the brain.

• Beta waves: Small, fast brain waves associated with being awake and alert.

• Alpha waves: Large, slow brain waves associated with relaxation and falling asleep.

• Sleep stages: Levels of sleep identified by brain-wave patterns and behavioral changes.

• Rapid eye movement (REMs): Swift eye movement during sleep.

• REM sleep: Stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, high frequency brain waves, and dreaming.

• Non-REM(NREM) sleep: Non-rapid eye movement sleep characteristic of sleep Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4. Dream free 90% of the time

  The Four Stages of non-REM Sleep

  • Stage 1 (light sleep): Marked by small, irregular brain waves and some alpha waves. The body relaxes and may trigger hypnic jerks. There is a lack of REMs and dreams.

  • Stage 2: Sleep deepens and body temperature drops, sleep spindles appear on EEG

• Sleep spindles: Distinctive bursts of brain-wave activity that indicate a person is asleep.

  • Stage 3: very larger and slow delta waves begin to appear. Signals a move to deeper slow-wave sleep and loss of consciousness

• Delta waves: Large, slow brain waves that occur in deeper sleep (stages 3 and 4.)

  • Deep Sleep (Stage 4 sleep): The deepest form of normal sleep is reached in about an hour. Pure slow-wave delta waves and if sleeper hears a loud noise in Stage 4, they will wake up in a state of confusion.

• REM rebound: The occurrence of extra rapid eye movement sleep deprivation affects alcoholics giving them horrible nightmares

  REM Sleep and Dreaming:

• Brain waves associated with imagery and emotion

• Includes:

  • Rapid eye movement

  • Irregular heartbeat

  • Wavering blood pressure and breathing

  • Sleep paralysis

  • Sharpening or complete consolidation of our memories

  The Need for Sleep

• Repair/restorative theories of sleep: Proposals that lowering body and brain activity and metabolism during sleep may help conserve energy and lengthen life.

• Sleep deprivation: Being prevented from getting desired or needed amounts of sleep.

• Microsleep: A brief shift in brain-wave patterns to those of sleep.

• Sleep-deprivation psychosis: A major disruption of mental and emotional functioning brought about by sleep loss. It causes disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations.

  Psychodynamic Dream Theory

• Psychodynamic theories: Any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces.

• Wish fulfillment: Freudian belief that many dreams express unconscious desires.

• Sigmund Freud proposes:

  • Dream symbols: Images in dreams that serve as visible signs of hidden ideas, desires, impulses, emotions, relationships, and so forth.

  • Manifest content (of dreams): The surface, “visible” content of a dream; dream images as the dreamer remembers them.

  • Latent content (of dreams): The hidden or symbolic meaning of a dream, as revealed by dream interruption and analysis.

• Activation-synthesis hypothesis (Allan Hobson and Robert Mccarley): Proposition that dreams are how brains process the random electrical discharges of REM sleep.

• Neurocognitive dream theory (William Domhoff): Proposal that dreams reflect everyday waking thoughts and emotions. Dreams are conscious expressions of REM sleep processes of sorting and storing daily expressions

  Sleep Troubles: Some Things That Go Wrong in the Night

• Sleep-wake disorders: Difficulties falling asleep, staying asleep, waking up, or any combination of these, such as insomnia.

  Insomnia

• Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep.

  Types of Insomnia

• Temporary Insomnia: Caused by stress and excitement.

• Drug-dependency Insomnia: Sleep loss caused by withdrawal from sleeping pills

• Behavioral Remedies for Insomnia:

  • Stimulus Control

  • Sleep Restriction

  • Paradoxical Intention

  • Relaxation

  • Exercise

  • Food Intake

  • Stimulant avoidance

• Stimulus control: Linking a particular response with specific stimuli.

  Disorders of Arousal: Sleepwalking, Sleeptalking, and Sleepsex

• Somnambulists: People who sleepwalk; occurs during NREM sleep.

• Nightmare: A bad dream that occurs during REM sleep.

• Sleep terror (night terror): A state of panic during NREM sleep.

  Sleep Apnea

• Sleep apnea: Disorder in which a person stops breathing during sleep.

  SIDS

• Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): The sudden, unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant.

  Narcolepsy

• Narcolepsy: A sudden, irresistible sleep attack.

  5.4 Drug-Altered Consciousness: The High and Low of it

• Psychoactive drug: Any substance that can alter a person’s state of consciousness.

• Simulant (upper): A substance that increases activity in the body and nervous system.

• Depressant (downer): A substance that decreases activity in the body and nervous system.

• Substance use an addictive disorder: Abuse of, or dependence on, a mood- or behavior-altering drug or equivalent.

  Dependency

• Physical dependence (addiction): Compulsive use of a drug to maintain bodily comfort as indicated by the presence of drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms.

• Withdrawal symptoms: Physical illness and discomfort after an addict stops taking a drug.

• Drug tolerance: Progressive decrease in a person’s responsiveness to a drug.

• Psychological dependence: Drug dependence that is based primarily on emotional or psychological needs.

  Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away

  Amphetamines:

  • Synthetic stimulant

  • Used for weight loss and depression

  • Treats ADHD

  • Incorrectly used to stay awake and improve mental/phyical performance

• Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A behavioral problem characterized by short attention span, restless movement, and impaired learning capacity.

  Cocaine:

  • Central nervous system stimulant

  • Feelings of alertness, euphoria, well-being, energy

  • The capacity for abuse is similar to heroin

  • Withdrawal system of anhedonia

• Anhedonia: An inability to feel pleasure.

  MDMA (Molly, Ecstasy):

  • Chemically similar to amphetamines

  • Produce hallucinations

  • Long-term effects

  • Release dopamine, serotonin, and epinephrine (adrenaline)

  • Users are more likely to abuse alcohol

  Caffeine:

  • Most used in North America

  • Blocks chemical that inhibits nerve activity

  • Symptoms: irritability, insomnia, racing heart, elevated body temperature, and high blood pressure

  • Causes: breast cysts, bladder cancer, and heart problems

  Nicotine, chewing tobacco, and snuff:

  • Third most used drug next to caffeine and alcohol

  • Natural stimulant

  • Withdrawal symptoms: headache, cramps, insomnia, cravings, sweating, irritability

  • Contains carcinogens

  • The best way to quit is through scheduled gradual reduction

• Carcinogens: cancer-causing substance

• Scheduled gradual reduction: Gradually stretching the length of time between cigarettes

  Depressants: Down and Out

  Opioids (heroin, fentanyl, morphine, oxycodone, codeine):

  • Produce sleep and pain relief

  • Powerful feeling of euphoria, decrease of anxiety, relaxation

  • High does cause impaired breathing and death

  • Harm- reduction strategy: use methadone to reduce opioids “rush”

• Harm-reduction strategy: A treatment approach to drug addiction that seeks to reduce the negative consequences of addiction without necessarily requiring drug abstinence.

  Barbiturates:

  • Sedative drugs that depress brain activity

  • Medically used to calm people and induce sleep

  • Low doses are similar to alcohol symptoms

  • High does cause severe mental confusion and hallucinations

  • Overdose: loss of consciousness, severe depression of brain centers that control heartbeat and breathing

  Tranquilizer (Xanax, Valium, Librium, Halcion):

  • Lower anxiety and tension

  • Rohypnol: roofie, date rape drug

  • Causes physical dependence, and severe depression that can lead to suicide

  GHB:

  • Central nervous system depressant

  • Low doses cause euphoria, desire to socialize, and mild loss of inhibition

  • Higher doses cause nausea, loss of muscle control, sleep or loss of consciousness

  • Fatal doses is only 3x more than normal dose

  Alcohol:

  • Reduces inhibition, relaxation, euphoria, brain impairment, and loss of consciousness

  • Alcohol myopia

  • Binge drinking

• Alcohol myopia: Shortsighted thinking and perception that occurs during alcohol intoxication.

• Binge drinking: Consuming five or more drinks in a short time (four for women).

  • Results in loss of 10% of brain power in young adults

• Detoxification: In the treatment of drug abuse, including alcoholism, the withdrawal of the patient from the drug(s) in question.

  Hallucinogens: Tripping the Light Fantastic

• Hallucinogen: A substance that alters or distorts sensory impressions.

  Lysergic acid dimethylamine (LSD):

  • Acid, shrooms, peyote

  • Mystical-type experiences and psychotic-like disturbances

  • Affects neurotransmitter systems

  Phencyclidine (PCP):

  • Angel dust

  • Anesthetic with stimulant and depressant effects

  • Affects neurotransmitter system

  Cannabis (THC, CBD):

  • Gives sense of euphoria, relaxation, altered time sense, and perceptual, distortions

  • Activates neurons in endocannabinoid system

  • High doses cause paranoia, hallucinations, and delusions

  • Nonusers are healthier, earn more, and are more satisfied with their lives

  • Long-term effects: shorter or no menstrual cycles and ovaluation, higher rate of miscarriages, harm to fetuses

  • Can impact stress and pain

  • Can lead of abuse of drug

  5.5 Psychology and Your Skill Set: Metacognition

• Metacognitition: The conscious experience of thinking about your own thinking and performance.

  • Closely connected to self-regulation

  • Monitor and evaluate your thought process, understanding, and performance across different situations

  • Critical in developing effective plans and evaluation progress

  • Knowledge, abilities, monitoring, biases, and control

  Thinking About Thinking

• To improve metacognitive knowledge, be aware of strategies, assumptions, and biases

• To improve metacognitive processes, connect strategies, biases, or assumptions

• To improve metacognitive control, alter thought processes or behavior when not on track

Chapter in Review:

5.1 States of Consciousness: The Many Faces of Awareness

5.1.1 Define Consciousness

Consciousness is a core feature of mental life consisting of sensations and perceptions of external events as well as self-awareness of mental events, including thoughts, memories, and feelings about experiences and the self

5.1.2 Distinguish between disordered states of consciousness and altered states of consciousness

Disordered (non-normal) states of consciousness include comas and persistent vegetative states. Altered states of consciousness (ASCs) are characterized by changes in the quality and pattern of mental activity (e.g., perceptions, emotions, time sense). ASCs are especially associated with sleep and dreaming, hypnosis, meditation, and psychoactive drugs. Cultural norms affect what ASCs a person recognizes, seeks, considers normal, and attains.

5.2 Hypnosis and Meditation: Relax...

5.2.1 Describe how hypnosis works, distinguishing between state and nonstate theories of hypnosis Although not all psychologists agree, hypnosis is usually defined as a state characterized by narrowed attention, reduced peripheral awareness, and increased suggestibility. It is not the same as being asleep. Hypnotists have individuals focus attention on the hypnotist’s words asking them to relax, let go, and accept suggestions, and use their imagination. Feelings that accompany hypnosis include floating, sinking, and separation from the body. Hypnosis may improve physical abilities, enhance memories, induce amnesia, relieve pain, and alter sensory experiences. Actions of the hypnotized person feel involuntary, but they are aware of what is happening and remain in control. The most common state theory of hypnosis suggests it is a dissociative state characterized by a “split” in our awareness, one part of which is a “hidden observer” that is detached from the hypnotized person’s awareness and silently watches what is happening. In contrast, nonstate theories suggest hypnosis is simply a blend of conformity, relaxation, imagination, obedience, and role-playing characterized by autosuggestion.

5.2.2 Describe how meditation works, distinguishing between mindfulness and concentrative meditation

Meditation is a mental exercise to later consciousness. Meditation is thought to work by bringing about the relaxation response, a calming physiological response. The major benefits of meditation are its ability to calm the body and mind, improve self-awareness and creativity.

Mindfulness meditation involves observing your own thoughts and feelings without judgement. In contrast, concentrative meditation requires individuals to focus on something specific (word, mantra, breathing) to focus attention.

5.3 Sleep: The Nightly Roller Coaster

5.3.1 Describe the typical pattern of sleeping and waking

Humans’ sleep-wake cycles usually work on a 24-hour clock, though in the absence of typical light/dark patterns this cycle will shift to one that averages more than 24 hours. Most people sleep for approximately 7-8 hours, though there can be significant variation in the amount of sleep that people need and there appears to be a developmental shift, with older adults sleeping less.

5.3.2 Describe NREM (non-REM) sleep, including its function and four stages

During NREM sleep, brain waves become longer and slower, pulse rate drops, and body temperature drops. NREM sleep occurs in four stages. Stage 1 is light sleep, and Stage 4 is deep sleep. The sleeper alternates between Stage 1 and 4 (passing through Stages 2 and 3) several times each night. In terms of function, NREM sleep helps the body to recover from fatigue and calms the brain to allow the process of memory consolidation to begin.

5.3.3 Describe REM sleep and its function

Periods of REM (rapid eye movement) sleep are strongly associated with high emotion, aroused physiology, dreaming, and sleep paralysis. With respect to function, REM sleep is important for completing the consolidation of memories.

5.3.4 Explain why we need to sleep, and the consequences of not sleeping

Lowered body metabolism and brain activity during sleep may help conserve energy and lengthen life. Moderate sleep loss affects mainly vigilance and performance on routine or boring tasks. Higher animals and people deprived of sleep loss can (somewhat rarely) produce a temporary sleep-deprivation psychosis.

5.3.5 Name and briefly describe the three theories of dreaming

• The Freudian or psychodynamic view is that dreams express unconscious wishes, frequently disguised by dream symbols

• The activation-synthesis model portrays dreaming as a random physiological process

• The neurocognitive view of dreams holds that dreams are continuous with waking thoughts and emotions. Supporting the neurocognitive view, most dream content is about familiar setting, people, and actions

5.3.6 Outline five sleep disorders

1. Insomnia is defined by difficulties getting to sleep and/or staying asleep. It may be temporary or chronic. It is often caused by worry, stress, or excitement but can also be brought on by withdrawal from sleeping pills

2. Disorders of arousal, including sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and sleepsex (which occur during NREM sleep)

3. Sleep terrors (which occur in NREM sleep) and nightmares (which occur in REM sleep)

4. Sleep Apnea (interrupted breathing), which is suspected to be one cause of SIDS

5. Narcolepsy and cataplexy (which are caused by a sudden shift to Stage 1 REM patterns during normal waking hours

5.4 Drug-Altered Consciousness: The High and Low of It

5.4.1 Explain the action of psychoactive drug, and distinguish between recreational and instrumental drug use

Psychoactive drugs affect the brain in ways that alter consciousness. Most psychoactive drugs can be placed on a scale ranging from stimulant to depressant

Instrumental use of drugs refers to situations when drugs are used to address a specific issue. Recreational use of drugs refers to situations when drugs are used to experience the psychoactive effects of a drug. Recreational use may be experimental, social-recreational, intensive, or compulsive. Drug abuse is most often associated with the last two recreational uses.

5.4.2 Outline three reasons for drug abuse

Psychoactive drugs are abused as a coping mechanism, to achieve the rewarding experience that drugs generate in the brain, and because the user has developed a dependency.

5.4.3 Name five common stimulants

• Amphetamines, or synthetic stimulants (e.g., methamphetamine and “study drugs” such as Adderall and Ritalin)

• Cocaine; a natural stimulant extracted from cocoa

• MDMA/Ecstasy

• Caffeine

• Nicotine

5.4.4 Name five common depressants

• Opioids, or narcotics (e.g., opium, heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycodone, methadone, fentanyl)

• Barbiturates, or sedatives

• GHB

• Tranquilizers (e.g., benzodiazepines such as Valium, Xanax)

• Alcohol

5.4.5 Name two common hallucinogens

• LSD/PCP

• Cannabis

5.5 Psychology and Your Skill Set: Metacognition

5.5.1 Define metacognition, describe its three elements

Metacognition is the ability to think about our thinking, understanding, and performance. In general, people have poor metacognitive judgements. The three elements of metacognition are knowledge (about skills, biases, and strategies), monitoring (through tracking and evaluating thoughts and behaviors), and control (changing or redirecting thoughts and behaviors).

5.5.2 Create a plan to improve your own metacognitive skills

Developing metacognitive knowledge, monitoring processes, and control strategies are important in personal and professional settings, and can help you with such things as building relationships or assessing how you might best study for exams or complete a big project. We hope that after reading this section, you’ll be able to use what you know about the three elements of metacognition to help you improve your awareness about your skills and knowledge in areas that are important to you.