Distinguish between the terms habitual physical activity, exercise, sports, and physical fitness:

Habitual Physical Activity

• Refers to routine, daily activities involving bodily movement integrated into one's lifestyle.

• Examples: Walking, cycling, household chores.

• Characteristic: Often incidental and not explicitly planned.

Exercise

• Planned, structured, and repetitive physical activity aiming to enhance or maintain physical fitness.

• Examples: Running, weightlifting, aerobic exercises.

• Characteristic: Purposeful and with specific fitness goals.

Sports

• Organized, competitive activities with rules, often involving skill and strategy.

• Examples: Soccer, basketball, swimming.

• Characteristic: Emphasis on competition and structured play.

Physical Fitness

• Overall health and well-being, encompassing various components like cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, and body composition.

• Characteristic: Reflects the ability to perform both sports and daily activities effectively.

Hypokinetic Disease

• Health issues associated with insufficient physical activity or sedentary behavior.

• Characteristic: Often preventable through regular physical activity.

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

• Blood vessels supplying the heart muscle become narrowed or blocked.

• Risk Factors: Sedentary lifestyle, poor diet, smoking.

• Prevention: Regular physical activity, healthy diet.

Stroke

• Disruption of blood flow to the brain, leading to cell damage.

• Risk Factors: Hypertension, lack of physical activity.

• Prevention: Physical activity, blood pressure management.

Hypertension

• High blood pressure, potentially damaging arteries.

• Risk Factors: Sedentary lifestyle, poor diet, genetics.

• Prevention: Regular physical activity, healthy diet.

Obesity

• Excess body fat due to an imbalance in calorie intake and expenditure.

• Risk Factors: Sedentary behavior, unhealthy diet.

• Prevention: Regular physical activity, balanced diet.

Type 2 Diabetes

• Insulin resistance or insufficient insulin production leading to high blood sugar.

• Risk Factors: Sedentary lifestyle, poor diet, genetics.

• Prevention: Regular physical activity, weight management.

Osteoporosis

• Weakened bones prone to fractures.

• Risk Factors: Lack of weight-bearing exercise, inadequate calcium intake.

• Prevention: Weight-bearing exercises, adequate calcium intake.

Studies of different populations provide evidence of the link between physical activity and hypokinetic disease:

Epidemiological Studies

• Purpose: Examine health patterns in large populations.

• Evidence: Consistent findings show a lower incidence of hypokinetic diseases in physically active populations.

Longitudinal Research

• Purpose: Track individuals over time.

• Evidence: Demonstrates the impact of changes in physical activity levels on the development or prevention of hypokinetic diseases.

The relationship between major societal changes and hypokinetic disease

Technological Advances

• Impact: Prolonged screen time and sedentary behaviors contribute to disease risk.

• Intervention: Encourage breaks, promote active technologies.

Urbanization

• Impact: Altered living environments and transportation patterns can reduce physical activity.

• Intervention: Design urban spaces to encourage physical activity.

Workplace Changes

• Impact: Sedentary jobs contribute to a lack of physical activity.

• Intervention: Promote workplace wellness programs, standing desks.

Public Health Interventions

• Purpose: Implement policies to promote physical activity.

• Examples: Encourage active transportation, create recreational spaces.

Cardiovascular Disease

Coronary Circulation

• Coronary circulation refers to the movement of blood through the vessels that supply the heart muscle (myocardium).

• Components: The coronary circulation includes the coronary arteries and veins.

• Function: Coronary arteries deliver oxygenated blood to the heart, and coronary veins remove deoxygenated blood.

Atherosclerosis

• Atherosclerosis is a condition where fatty deposits (plaques) build up on the inner walls of arteries, narrowing the vessels and reducing blood flow.

• Process: It involves the accumulation of cholesterol, calcium, and other substances, leading to the formation of plaques.

• Consequences: Atherosclerosis is a common cause of cardiovascular diseases, including coronary artery disease.

Major Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease

Modifiable Factors

• High blood pressure

• High cholesterol levels

• Smoking

• Physical inactivity

• Obesity

• Diabetes

Non-Modifiable Factors

• Age

• Gender

• Family history

Concept of Risk Factors in Cardiovascular Disease

• Risk factors are characteristics or behaviors associated with an increased likelihood of developing a disease.

• Significance: Identifying and addressing risk factors can help prevent or manage cardiovascular diseases.

• Interplay: Multiple risk factors often interact, amplifying the overall risk.

Lifestyle of Physical Inactivity Increases the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease

• Impact on Blood Flow: Regular physical activity promotes healthy blood flow, reducing the risk of atherosclerosis.

• Blood Pressure Regulation: Exercise helps maintain blood pressure within a healthy range.

• Weight Management: Physical activity contributes to weight control, reducing obesity-related cardiovascular risks.

• Improved Lipid Profile: Exercise can increase HDL (good cholesterol) and decrease LDL (bad cholesterol).

Physical Activity and Obesity

How Obesity is Determined

• Body Mass Index (BMI): A measure of body fat based on weight and height.

• Waist Circumference: Reflects abdominal fat and central obesity.

• Body Fat Percentage: Direct measurement of the proportion of body weight that is fat.

Major Health Consequences of Obesity

• Cardiovascular Diseases: Increased risk of heart disease and stroke.

• Type 2 Diabetes: Obesity is a significant risk factor for developing diabetes.

• Joint Problems: Excess weight puts strain on joints, leading to conditions like osteoarthritis.

• Respiratory Issues: Obesity can cause or exacerbate conditions like sleep apnea.

• Psychological Impact: Obesity may lead to mental health issues, such as depression.

Concept of Energy Balance

• Energy balance is the equilibrium between calorie intake and expenditure.

• Importance: Positive energy balance (more intake than expenditure) leads to weight gain, while negative energy balance (more expenditure than intake) leads to weight loss.

• Role in Obesity: Chronic positive energy balance contributes to obesity.

How Chemical Signals Arising from the Gut and from the Adipose Tissue Affect Appetite Regulation

• Leptin: Secreted by adipose tissue, it signals satiety to the brain, reducing appetite.

• Ghrelin: Released by the stomach, it stimulates hunger and increases food intake.

• Insulin: Influences hunger and regulates glucose metabolism, affecting appetite.

Physical Activity and Type 2 Diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes

• Autoimmune condition.

• Insufficient insulin production.

• Typically diagnosed in childhood.

Type 2 Diabetes

• Insulin resistance or insufficient insulin.

• Often linked to lifestyle factors.

• Typically diagnosed in adulthood.

Major Risk Factors for Type 2 Diabetes

• Obesity: Central in the development of insulin resistance.

• Physical Inactivity: Lack of exercise reduces insulin sensitivity.

• Genetics: Family history increases the risk.

• Age: Risk increases with age.

Health Risks of Diabetes

• Cardiovascular Diseases: Increased risk of heart disease and stroke.

• Nerve Damage (Neuropathy): Affects nerves, leading to pain, numbness, and impaired sensation.

• Kidney Damage (Nephropathy): Diabetes is a leading cause of kidney failure.

• Eye Complications (Retinopathy): Can lead to vision impairment and blindness.

Physical Activity and Bone Health:

Bone density changes from birth to old age

• Infancy to Childhood:

  • Rapid bone growth and mineralization due to development and growth.

  • Peak bone mass is achieved by early adulthood through a combination of genetic and lifestyle factors.

• Adulthood:

  • Maintenance of bone density occurs through a dynamic balance of resorption (breakdown of bone tissue) and formation (creation of new bone tissue).

  • Adequate physical activity and nutrition, including calcium and vitamin D, are crucial for preserving bone health.

• Old Age:

  • Gradual decline in bone density, particularly in postmenopausal women due to hormonal changes.

  • Regular weight-bearing exercise, such as walking or resistance training, can slow down bone loss.

Risk of osteoporosis in males and females

• Females:

  • Higher risk, especially after menopause due to a decrease in estrogen levels, which accelerates bone loss.

  • Osteoporosis is a significant concern.

• Males:

  • Generally lower risk compared to females.

  • Still susceptible, particularly with aging and certain health conditions.

Longer-term consequences of osteoporotic fractures

• Fractures:

  • Increased susceptibility to fractures, especially in weight-bearing bones like the hip, spine, and wrist.

• Mobility Issues:

  • Impaired mobility and independence due to fractures and associated complications.

• Chronic Pain:

  • Ongoing pain and discomfort, impacting the quality of life.

• Reduced Quality of Life:

  • Impact on overall well-being and daily activities due to limitations imposed by fractures.

Major risk factors for osteoporosis

• Age:

  • Older individuals are at a higher risk as bone density naturally declines with age.

• Gender:

  • Females are more prone, especially postmenopausal due to hormonal changes.

• Family History:

  • Genetic factors play a role; a family history of osteoporosis increases the risk.

• Hormonal Changes:

  • Estrogen decline in women and testosterone decline in men are associated with bone loss.

• Nutrition:

  • Calcium and vitamin D deficiency can compromise bone health.

• Physical Inactivity:

  • Lack of weight-bearing exercise contributes to reduced bone density.

Relationship between physical activity and bone health

• Weight-Bearing Exercise:

  • Strengthens bones and promotes bone density.

• Resistance Training:

  • Stimulates bone formation and reduces the risk of fractures.

• Impact Activities:

  • Jumping, running, and other weight-bearing exercises are particularly beneficial for bone health.

• Balance and Coordination Exercises:

  • Help prevent falls and fractures, especially in the elderly.

Prescription of Exercise for Health

Physical activity guidelines for the promotion of good health

• Aerobic Exercise:

  • At least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity per week.

• Muscle-Strengthening:

  • Two or more days a week.

• Flexibility and Balance Training:

  • Regular inclusion for overall well-being.

Aims of exercise in individuals with a hypokinetic disease

• Manage Symptoms:

  • Alleviate symptoms associated with the disease, such as pain or fatigue.

• Improve Functionality:

  • Enhance physical function and mobility, addressing limitations.

• Prevent Complications:

  • Reduce the risk of secondary complications related to the disease.

• Enhance Overall Well-being:

  • Improve mental health, quality of life, and overall sense of well-being.

Potential barriers to physical activity

• Lack of Time:

  • Busy schedules and conflicting priorities can limit available time for exercise.

• Lack of Motivation:

  • Insufficient drive or interest to engage in physical activity.

• Physical Limitations:

  • Health conditions or injuries may restrict the ability to exercise.

• Environmental Barriers:

  • Lack of access to suitable facilities or concerns about safety in the neighborhood.

Exercise and Psychological Well-being

Mood

• A temporary state of mind or feeling that can be influenced by various factors, including physical activity.

Effects of exercise on changing mood states

• Endorphin Release:

  • Exercise triggers the release of endorphins, promoting feelings of happiness and euphoria.

• Reduced Stress Hormones:

  • Physical activity lowers cortisol levels, reducing stress.

• Improved Sleep:

  • Regular exercise can lead to better sleep quality, positively impacting mood.

Exercise enhances psychological well-being

• Improved Self-Esteem:

  • Achievements in physical activity contribute to a positive self-image.

• Stress Reduction:

  • Physical activity acts as a stress buffer, promoting relaxation.

• Enhanced Cognitive Function:

  • Exercise is associated with improved cognitive function and mental clarity.

Role of exercise in reducing the effects of anxiety and depression

• Neurotransmitter Regulation:

  • Exercise helps regulate neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, associated with mood regulation.

• Cortisol Reduction:

  • Physical activity reduces cortisol levels associated with anxiety.

• Distraction and Social Interaction:

  • Exercise provides a positive outlet and opportunities for social engagement, mitigating feelings of isolation.

Potential personal and environmental barriers to physical activity

• Personal Barriers:

  • Lack of motivation, fear of judgment, and physical limitations may hinder engagement.

• Environmental Barriers:

  • Lack of access to safe exercise spaces, inclement weather, and inadequate community infrastructure can pose challenges.

Strategies for enhancing adherence to exercise

• Goal Setting:

  • Setting realistic and achievable goals for motivation.

• Social Support:

  • Engaging in group activities or partnering with a workout buddy for encouragement.

• Variety:

  • Including a variety of exercises to prevent boredom and maintain interest.

• Incorporating Enjoyable Activities:

  • Choosing activities that individuals find enjoyable to increase adherence.

Possible negative aspects of exercise adherence

• Overtraining:

  • Excessive exercise leading to fatigue, increased risk of injury, and burnout.

• Burnout:

  • Loss of interest or motivation due to excessive training.

• Injury:

  • Poor form or overtraining can result in physical injuries.

• Mental Health Strain:

  • Unrealistic expectations or excessive pressure leading to stress and potential negative psychological effects.

Public Health

Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs)

• Diseases not transmitted from person to person.

• Examples: Cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer.

• Cause: Often linked to lifestyle factors like diet, physical inactivity, and tobacco use.

Communicable Diseases

• Diseases transmitted from person to person or through vectors.

• Examples: Influenza, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS.

• Cause: Caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, or parasites.

Population attributable risk (PAR)

• Population Attributable Risk (PAR) is the proportion of cases in a population that can be attributed to exposure to a particular risk factor.

• Formula: PAR = P * (RR - 1) / [1 + P * (RR - 1)], where P is the prevalence of the risk factor, and RR is the relative risk.

• Significance: PAR helps estimate the proportion of diseases that could be prevented if a specific risk factor were eliminated.

Use of population attributable risk (PAR) for prioritizing public health initiatives

• Identification of High-Impact Factors: PAR helps identify risk factors with the greatest impact on the population.

• Resource Allocation: Enables the allocation of resources to interventions that address high PAR factors.

• Public Health Planning: Guides the development of targeted interventions to reduce the burden of preventable diseases.

• Policy Decision-Making: Informs policy decisions for maximum public health impact.

Relationship between moderate exercise and health

• Cardiovascular Health: Improves heart health by enhancing blood circulation and reducing the risk of heart diseases.

• Metabolic Health: Helps regulate blood sugar levels, reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes.

• Weight Management: Aids in weight control, reducing the risk of obesity-related conditions.

• Mental Health: Associated with reduced stress, anxiety, and depression.

• Bone Health: Supports bone density and reduces the risk of osteoporosis.

• Immune Function: Moderate exercise boosts the immune system.

Causes of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in athletes

• Structural Heart Abnormalities: Undetected congenital or acquired heart issues.

• Arrhythmias: Irregular heart rhythms disrupting normal electrical activity.

• Coronary Artery Abnormalities: Malformations affecting blood supply to the heart.

• Commotio Cordis: Impact-induced ventricular fibrillation, often seen in contact sports.

• Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Thickening of the heart muscle, leading to electrical instability.

Injury and Hazards

Musculoskeletal injuries

• Injuries that affect the muscles, bones, ligaments, tendons, and other elements of the musculoskeletal system.

• Examples: Sprains, strains, fractures, dislocations.

Distinguish between compression, tension, and shearing injuries

• Compression Injuries: Result from a force that crushes or squeezes tissues or structures.

• Tension Injuries: Occur when a force pulls tissues or structures apart.

• Shearing Injuries: Result from forces applied parallel to opposing surfaces, causing tissues to slide in opposite directions.

Distinguish between acute and chronic injuries

• Acute Injuries: Sudden and severe injuries resulting from a specific incident or trauma.

• Chronic Injuries: Gradual injuries that develop over time due to repeated overuse or stress.

Types of injuries common in different sports

• Football (Soccer): Sprains, strains, contusions, and ligament injuries.

• Basketball: Ankle sprains, knee injuries (especially ACL tears).

• Running: Stress fractures, shin splints, runner's knee.

• Gymnastics: Sprains, strains, stress fractures, overuse injuries.

• Weightlifting: Strains, muscle tears, back injuries.

Common causes of running-related injuries

• Overtraining: Insufficient recovery time between runs.

• Poor Biomechanics: Incorrect running form or inappropriate footwear.

• Sudden Increases in Intensity: Rapidly increasing mileage or speed.

• Surface Issues: Running on uneven or hard surfaces.

• Muscle Imbalances: Weakness or tightness in certain muscle groups.

Risks and hazards of exercise can be reduced

• Proper Warm-Up and Cool Down: Reduces the risk of muscle strains and improves flexibility.

• Progressive Training: Gradual increases in intensity, duration, and frequency.

• Correct Technique: Ensures proper form during exercises to prevent injuries.

• Appropriate Equipment: Wearing suitable footwear and protective gear.

• Regular Health Check-ups: Identifying and managing potential health issues.

Benefits and hazards of exercise with regard to health

• Benefits:

  • Improved cardiovascular health.

  • Enhanced muscular strength and endurance.

  • Weight management.

  • Improved mental health and mood.

  • Better bone health.

• Hazards:

  • Risk of injuries (musculoskeletal or acute).

  • Overtraining leading to burnout.

  • Cardiovascular risks in extreme cases.

  • Potential exacerbation of existing health conditions.