Revolutions from c. 1750 - c. 1900

The Enlightenment, the Atlantic Revolutions and the Industrial Revolution:

The Enlightenment:

• The Enlightenment - A movement taking ideas from humanism, the Renaissance, as well as the Scientific Revolution that valued reason over faith (Empiricism).

• renaissance is the first questioning period

• scientific revolution questioned nature, eventually the governments that’s what led to the enlightenment

• challenging conservatism and moving into liberalism

  Led to the “age of Isms:”

• Socialism - Worker owns the means of production

• *Liberalism - A push towards new ideas and change, a belief in natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, and reduced spending on armies*(liberals more progressive, natural rights, more constitutional style of government)

• *Conservatism - A belief in traditional values*(we don’t want change, keep the status quo, want kings & queens, and monarchies)

• Nationalism - A fierce loyalty to those who share your customs and language(pride in your country)

• Capitalism - Means of production are privately owned and operated for profit.

• Feminism - Women’s rights and equality

• Deism - God exists but does not ordain

• Empiricism - Knowledge comes from your senses.

  The following Enlightenment ideals challenged both the roles of powerful monarchs as well as the role of the church:

• individualism

• freedom

• self-determination

• *Natural Rights - Rights afforded to you just by being born *

• deism

• empiricism

• citizenship

• These ideas encouraged revolutions in the US, France, and around the world, as well as numerous reform movements.

  Enlightenment Thinkers:

• John Locke - There is no divine right.

• People are born with natural rights

• **Social Contract(**The people give the government power. In return, the government protects the people. Should the government fail, the people may overthrow the government.)

• influenced American democracy(father of most democratic governments)

• challenged not only the power of the church but monarchs as well

• Believed intelligence was not influenced by ancestry, but by education and environment

• Thomas Hobbes - Believed in a slightly modified social contract

• Believed people’s natural state was to live in a bleak world that was “nasty, brutish, and short”.(thought the people were naturally corrupt)

• Believed life could be made better by giving away some rights to a strong government to improve life and have law and order.

• Believed in the power of a strong Monarchy (Hobbes thought a king would keep everything in order)

• the people like Locke, the government likes Hobbes

• The Philosophes: A group of 18th c. thinkers and writers who explored social, political, and economic theories.

• Growing literacy amongst populations allowed for Enlightenment writing to spread.

• Popularized ideas they took from scientific writers of the 17th c.Included Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and Adam Smith.

• Baron Montesquieu - Influenced American politics by writing about and praising the British government use of checks and balance, and separation of powers in Parliament.(branches of government)

• Voltaire - Advocated for civil liberties (rights) - Encouraged despots like Catherine the Great and Frederick the Great to institute Enlightened policies (Enlightened Despots)

• encouraged the French revolution & the American constitution with his ideas of **religious liberty(**first amendment rights, freedom of religion, press, speech)

• Voltaire is the second most famous philosopher, first is Locke

• Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations encouraged ideas of Capitalism, Laissez - Faire Economics (“leave alone”), and advocated against Mercantilism

• Adam Smith is the father of capitalism, and he believes government should not be involved in the economy

• *WEALTH OF NATIONS*(book)

• As empires grew and continued to consolidate power, Enlightenment ideas spread.

• Rousseau, social contract, people give up their rights and freedoms and the government protects you

  Reactions to the Enlightenment:

• Enlightenment thinkers wanted more government regulations for the poor to improve things like sanitation and l**abor conditions.(**react with the concept of unions)

• Utopian Socialism: Those who believed that society could be improved by building ideal communities were there was public or direct ownership of the means of production by those who worked it.(utopian socialism is not what Marx wanted)

• Henri de Saint - Simon - Engineers, scientists, and business should work together to provide jobs, create spaces worth working in, and create useful products.

• Charles Fourier - People should live harmoniously in society rather than struggle in a class system.

• Robert Owen - Communal ownership of property, education for children who worked, community rules to govern life.(everything was community based)

• Fabian Societies - England. Gradual Socialists, Believed in reforming society through parliament. Influenced lots of Europe in the 20th C.

• Marx idea was aimed at the poor and he wanted the poor to overthrow the rich

• Feminism - A movement for women’s rights, equality, and suffrage based on Enlightenment ideas.

• In 1791 Olympe de Gouges wrote “the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen” to point out that women’s rights had not been addressed in the hugely significant “Declarations of the Rights of Man and the French Citizen” that had encouraged the French Revolution.

• Inspired by Gouges, Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women where she argued women should have the same right to education as men.

• Education would give women more opportunities politically and professionally so they wouldn’t have to rely on men.

• These pieces of writing inspired the 1848 Seneca Falls convention , “The Declaration of Sentiments” was announced and said women should: Have the right to hold office, property, manage their money, be legal guardians of their children.Led by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

• ALL 3 ARE LOOKING FOR EQUAL RIGHTS IN DIFFERENT AREAS, MARY IN EDUCATION, OLYMPE IN EQUALITY, AND ELIZABETH IN MARRIAGE

• Abolitionism -  Reform movement encouraged by the Enlightenment fighting for the end of serfdom and slavery.

• Slavery trade was made illegal in the early 1800s in most places

• As Europe became more industrialized serfdom lost its importance

• Peasant revolts also led to reform.Elizabeth the I in England ended serfdom in 1574.France did so in 1789.Russia did so in 1861.

• Zionism - After centuries of anti-semitism around Europe, Jewish people pushed to have their own homeland. Led by Theodor Herzl(Jewish nationalism)

• Europe had not been a safe place for Jews, and the French Dreyfus affair solidified this.(A Jewish military officer was framed for crimes against the state. Framed to build distrust against the Jewish community.)

• New Ideas of natural rights and what it means to be a citizen encouraged abolitionist movements.

• Growing nationalism challenged abolitionist ideas and zionism because these people didn’t share ethnic ties to their community.

• Despite abolition movements, most social hierarchies stayed the same and focused on race/ethnicity  with freed slaves or serfs at the bottom

  Nationalism and Revolutions:

• Enlightenment ideas clashed with conservative traditions leading to an age of revolutions around the world. These revolutions were based on ideals of progress, reason, and natural law and had two major goals in common: A desire for Constitutional Government & a desire for democratic process.

  American Revolution:

• Rooted in Enlightenment Philosophy and ideas of **free-market economy (**Anti-Mercantilism).

• Causes:Colonists were basically politically independent, great distance from Great Britain, unhappy with regulations placed on colonies by Great Britain without their say

• Important document:**Declaration of Independence(**Written by Thomas Jefferson), Heavily influenced by ideas of John Locke (natural rights)

• Outcome:France helped the colonists become free from GB and establish and constitutional republic. Encouraged revolutionary movements in France.

• without the American revolution these other revolutions do not occur

• all these revolutions deal with nationalism, pride for your culture

  New Zealand Wars:

• Great Britain annexed New Zealand in 1840 resulting in an increased control over Maori tribes (iwi) and a desire for the land.

• The independent tribes banded together to fight the British, resulting in growing Maori nationalism. Unable to defeat the British.

  French Revolution:

• Ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity popularized by the Enlightenment Philosophes encouraged the French Revolution.

• Causes:France was poor after many wars during the 1780s(spending more than they made).France called the Estates - General to try and fix it.

• bread crisis, prices of bread shooting up

• the reason this begins is king Louis the 16th decides to make up by taxing the 1st and 2nd estate

• The Estates-General was made up of the **clergy, nobility, and commoners.**Commoners made up 97% of French society but did NOT make up 97% of the Estates - General which upset the commoners and encouraged them to make the National Assembly, their own governing body

• 3rd estate says we represent the interest of everyone

  The war:

• Initially, revolutionaries wanted a constitutional Monarchy, but this wasn’t enough for the General Assembly who stormed the Bastille  in 1789 which encouraged peasant uprisings. The King surrendered to the National Assembly.They abolished feudalism and adopted a new constitution called the “Declaration of Rights of Man” which declared basic human rights..The King refused to accept limited power and was overthrown. This established the French Republic led by a group called the Jacobins.

• Maximilien Robespierre

• *declaration of rights of man , version of their independence *

• chop of the commanders head and put it on the pipe

  The French Republic:

• Under the Jacobins, the new French government led the Reign of Terror.Killed thousands who opposed the revolution including the king and queen.There was a long period of turmoil until Napoleon Bonaparte, a military general, took control and made himself emperor of France.

• French revolution breaks down into 3 different sections: first section is the diplomatic stage, tries to do things peacefully, diplomatic pd ends when king Louis 16 Marie Antoinette says we are not following this and thats what starts the 2nd period & the reign of terror.Napoleon is the 3rd portion.

• 2 reasons Napoleon failed because Russia was too cold too big, and scorched earth policy

• if you were suspected of being counter revolutionary=head chopped off

• France turns itself into an empire

• actual end moment is the congress of Vienna

• 5 winning countries decided what to do with France and got rid of napoleon

  Haitian Revolution:

• Causes, encouraged by the French & Americans, slaves begin to revolt against their masters.

• Joined by escaped slaves already in the Caribbean called the Maroons.

• Toussaint L’Overture, a Haitian who  learns the way of the enlightenment, joined the rebellion against slavery.

• The enslaved Africans and Maroons established an independent gov’t.

  Haiti:

• L’Ouverture produced the Haitian constitution in 1801 that gave all people equality and citizenship.

• He declared himself governor for life.

• He split plantations between former slaves and free black people.

• He was imprisoned by France and died in 1803.

• J**ean-Jacques Dessalines.**Succeeded L’Ouverture and declared Haiti **permanently independent.**First country in the Caribbean and Latin America to get its independence.First black led country in the Western hemisphere.

• first and only successful slave revolt in history

• Haiti was a colony of France, takes place in the same time period as the French revolution(one of the big reasons why it was successful)

  French vs Haitian Revolutions:

• Both:Encouraged by Enlightenment ideas that said men had natural rights. Felt restricted by social classes (estates).

• Haitian:Led by slaves that had no rights prior to revolutions.

• in simplest terms french revolution is more impactful

  Creole Revolutions in Latin America:

• Social Structures in Latin America(spanish social hierarchy):

• Peninsulares - Born in Spain of Portugal

• Creoles - Born of European ancestry in the Americas

• Mestizos - Born of European & Indian parents

• Mulattoes - African and either European or Indigenous populations

• Creoles owned business and were upset with Spain’s mercantilist policies.Creoles and Mestizos wanted more political power, and resented the status of Peninsulares.

  Bolivar Revolutions:

• Desires for independence grew amongst the Creole class first.They did not want help from the “masses” (mestizos, indigenous, mulattos) because of what happened in Haiti.

• Bolivar was rich and well versed in Enlightenment ideas.

• Talented war general who fought Spain

• Wrote the **“Jamaica Letter”(**Aimed at rich creoles to join the cause.Rejected ideas of Mercantilism.Wanted reform - outlined liberal ideas.)

• Established “Gran Colombia” - wanted it to be like the US.

• Latin America suffered because wars were expensive

• Armies became loyal to the caudillos - strong local leaders who resisted democratic ideas and rule of law.

  Results of the Creole Revolutions:

• New constitutions and government were established in Latin America but things weren’t super changed.

• Social hierarchy still dominated society, and even though slavery was ended non-Spanish speakers were still denied most rights.

• The creole class remained in the upper class, and stayed pretty conservative.(rights are restricted all over again after fighting for their independence)

• Women gained little in the Latin American revolutions.

• As a whole south and central America, all get their independence in the 1800s, did not become liberal but conservative

• Bolivar succeeds because he utilizes the Andes mountains.Defeated the Spanish, freeing south America from Spanish control

• favor strong central government, very military based

Nationalism & Unification in Europe:

As nationalism grew, ideas of cultural and ethnic ties united new empires, and threatened older more multi-ethnic empires.

Italian Unification:

• In the 1880s, the Italian Peninsula was divided into local kingdoms and city-states.

• Count di Cavour decided to unite them under the national identity of Italian.

• Using realpolitik (practical politics) and Enlightenment ideas, he orchestrated a series of wars to weaken Austrian influence over the land.

• Giuseppe Mazzini and his idea of Italian Resurgence (risorgimento), combined the Cavour’s ideas, encouraged revolutionary fervor and Italy was unified.

• Italy remained poor in the 19th century and many people migrated

  German Unification:

• Parts of what was once the Holy Roman Empire were now under French control (Napoleon)

• Growing nationalism says this is bad.

• Prussian leader Otto von Bismarck used realpolitik to make Austria fight in 2 wars against Prussia, and France 1 war.

• Otto von Bismarck unifies all European states, blood and iron

• He won all 3

• Nationalism grew and Prussia gained territory

• 1871 - Bismarck establishes the kingdom of Germany

• Germany and Italy both become new world powers, and we see the seeds of growing nationalism that will lead to WWI.

• difference between the 2 is Germany gets rich and industrializes, and Italy continues to farm

  Balkan Nationalism:

• The Ottoman Empire had controlled the Balkan region for quite awhile, but in 1683 we start to see the beginning of the end.

• Other Balkan nations like Austria, and Eastern nations like Russia, start to push back against the Ottomans. Balkan nationalism develops.

• In 1827, after more contact with Western Enlightenment ideas, Greece worked with GB, France, and Russia to assert independence from the Ottomans after 325 years.

• In places like Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania, waning Ottoman control led to the introduction of new ideas, the growth of nationalism, and a desire for independence.

  Ottoman Nationalism:

• As a response to the growing desires of Balkan nationalism and independence, the Ottoman Empire created Ottomanism

• The creation of a new unified Ottoman identity and state.

• Used education to encourage Ottoman identity.

• other ethnic groups were not pleased with this, it showed how many people were unhappy with the Ottoman Empire, independence movements grew

  The Industrial Revolution Begins and Spreads:

• The Columbian Exchange, the growth of maritime trading empires, increased agricultural productivity, and individual accumulation of capital led to the Industrial Revolution.

  Pre-Industrial societies:

• lived in rural areas, grew most food, made own clothes

  Cottage Industries:

• Made to compete with Indian Cotton (be cheaper). Merchants gave raw cotton to women who spun it at home (gave women independence, low pay).Production was slow.

• Investor demand for faster production encouraged the growth of factories

  Agricultural Improvements:

• crop rotation

• seed drill

• Introduction of potato into European diets

  other improvements: medical care

• The improvements led to an increase in population, a need for fewer farmers(Plenty of people to work in factories)

• causes of the industrial revolution: starts in Britain, Britain is the starting point, start industrializing 150 years before everyone else

• they had agriculture, started developing new techniques, more food, more people, more job specialization

New Technology:

• Spinning Jenny - James Hargreaves - A weaver can spin more than one thread at a time.

• Water Frame - Richard Arkwright - Water Powered the spinning wheel.

• The water frame doomed cottage industry as it was too big to have in houses. Arkwright is known as the “father of factory”

• cottages worked because they could use rivers to generate power, and mass production

• Interchangeable Parts - Eli Whitney - if a part broke, it could be easily replaced.

• Division of Labor - Bosses and not-bosses.  (Not everyone had to be skilled) breaking it down, everyone has 1 job

• Specialization of Labor - Each person has a specific job

• Assembly Line - Henry Ford - Moving line made for quick production of a good in a factory.

  Great Britain’s Advantage:

  Great Britain was the first place to industrialize on a large scale. Here is why:

• Located near waterways(LOTS of rivers)

• Helped with transportation, importation of goods AND steam power.

• Mineral Resources - COAL!!

• coal powers the steam engine(provided energy)

• Access to resources in the colonies

• timber for ships

• capital (money)

• Strongest navy

• for protection in trade

• Private Property Protections

• the government could not take property in GB which encouraged people to make businesses

• Increased population in urban areas.

• the poor had lived in the “commons” but now they were moving to cities to find jobs like Manchester and Liverpool

• IRON AND COAL

• cottage industry to factories

• two industrial revolutions (consider the starting point when they start moving to steel and make consumer products)

• first industrial revolution was for government, rail lines, infrastructure, 2nd industrial revolution is for you

• Britain was able to industrialize because of the water, strongest navy of the world, urbanization

  Industrialization Spreads:

• Great Britain industrialized, spreading cheap cotton around the world and replacing Indian textile production. Other countries like Belgium, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan soon followed in industrialization. Each nation shared things like capital, natural resources, and water transportation.

• France:Industrialization in France was slow in the 1800s, French revolution, small population (no one to work in factories)

• Germany:Originally slow due the numerous small states, once unified in 1871, became massive producers of steel & coal.(because of Bismarck, blood and iron, state sponsored industrialization)

• US:Industrialized by the 19th c. - by 1900 the leading industrial power in the world, lots of human capital (workforce), immigrants from Europe, migrants from rural areas

• Russia:State sponsored industrialization, focused on railroads; Trans-Siberian Railroad from Moscow to Pacific Ocean.Easy trade with E. Asia, China, Japan

• Coal, Iron and Steel Industries.Most of economy remained agricultural, though, until 1917.

• Russia is late to the game and ends up hurting them because they lose the Russo Japanese war

• Japan: **“Defensive Modernization.”**Used new tech from US and Europe to protect traditional values.Adopted things like European dress and weapons.Built up military and economy to protect itself.(Meiji restoration influences this)

• for years Britain did not want the rest of the world to understand how to industrialize

• as European production grew there was an increase in ship building

• textile industry: Britain pushes India out

• non European places start to suffer more

• out of the Russian, German, and Japanese, the 3 Japanese industrialization is the biggest

• As Europe industrialized, the position of the Middle East and Asia on the global market declined

• Shipbuilding in India and SE Asia:

• GB Colonized this region in the late 17th and 18th centuries.

• shipbuilding had been prominent in the region

• Mismanagement of resources and poor leadership by GB made the industry suffer.

• Eventually, the British navy took control of this region ending Indian ship building.

• Iron works in India:

• GB Control also affected India's mineral production.

• “Company Control” - When British East Indian Co. controlled India.High taxes made it difficult for Indians to mine and work metals resulting in mines being closed.

• To prevent uprising, GB made the Arms Act (1878) limiting Indian access to minerals & firearms.

• people forgot there were mines because they hadn’t been used for a very long time

• Textile Production in India and Egypt:

• Two of the first places to trade in textiles.

• British competed with India, wanted textiles to be cheaper

• Taxed Indian textiles

• with time European textiles were so cheap, no one bought them from India or Egypt.

• India had their own cotton

• monopolizing

  Technology in the Industrial Age:

• The First industrial Revolution led to increased access to resources and the increased distribution of the goods those resources helped create.

• First Industrial Revolution: Steam engine, internal combustion engine, railroads, ships, factories

  Second Industrial Revolution: Involved chemicals, the use of steel, precision machinery, electronics, and communication devices like the phone and radio.

  Coal Revolution:

• switch to coal power symbolized a shift from most things being powered by man or animal, to most things being powered by fossil fuels.

• Steam Engine created by James Watt in 1765 was able to harness the power of coal to create steam which generated energy for machines in factories.

• we start to see the steam engine be used in everything

• within 50 years, steam was powering ships

• factories no longer had to be near water

• Helped GB industrialize with the railroad

• Water Transportation:

• Steamships changed sailing.

• Coal power could be used anywhere(ships or trains), was not dependent of wind

• replaced wind sailing ships

• Iron:

• Coal allowed iron to manufactured, which was a huge improvement in the manufacturing process

• The Second Industrial Revolution:19th and 20th Centuries - the developments in steels, chemicals, precision machinery, and electronics.

• Steel Production: Bessemer Process: Allowed iron and carbon to be combined to make steel - the strong and versatile backbone of industrial society

• Oil: new resource of energy from the mid 1800s

• Fossil Fuel - Energy source derived from animal remains

• Electricity: 1882 the first public power station beings generating electricity.

• Communications: telephone & radio

  Global Trade and Migration:

  Railroads, steamships, and the telegraph made exploration, development and communication possible.

• Allowed for immediate communication

• **Transcontinental Railroad:**Connected the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in the US .Led to US Industrial growth .Allowed the resources of the US to be connected.US becomes economic powerhouse!

• Railroads in general helped people move from rural to urban areas more easily

• For first time, farmers, manufacturers, miners, & customers domestically and internationally were connected.

• GB, Germany, and the US continued to while industrializing:They sought to protect their natural resources.Look for further natural resources (colonies)

• exploration had no limits

  The Government’s role in Industrialization:

  Nations were faced with clashes between modernization and conservative traditions.

• In places like Egypt, Japan, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire, the government encouraged and supported industrialization, even passing some laws to help industrialize.

• In other places, like China, governments were too weak or corrupt to sponsor industrialization.

  Ottoman Industrialization:

• The Ottoman empire did not adopt Western enlightenment ideas or technology, leaving them behind the rest of the Western world. Corruption led to decline, and nationalism spread unrest. As a result, the Ottoman Empire had become “the sick man of Europe” in the 19th c. and Russians were eager to expand into Ottoman territory.

• **Muhammad Ali in Egypt:**Egypt was still part of Ottoman control, but functioned mostly independently.Muhammad Ali took control of Egypt and made many changes without the Ottoman sultan’s permission.

• Ali’s Reforms:

• Westernizing the military

• An official newspaper

• Taxes the peasants

• Controlled valuable cotton production in Egypt

• Secularized Religious lands

• Industrialized(Built textile factories, built ships to create Navy)
  Despite the failures of the Ottoman Empire, Ali is known as the first great modern ruler of Egypt because of his vision of state-sponsored modernization

  Japanese Industrialization:

  After centuries (1600-1853) of isolation, Japan actively sought Western technologies and innovations to help it become equal to Western nations. During the Meiji Restoration, Japan was able to become a modern industrialized nation in less than half of a century due to state sponsored industrialization

• Japan Confronts Foreigners:

• In 1853 Matthew Perry demanded Japan trade with the US

• Japan relented

• They realized they needed “Defensive Industrialization” after China was humiliated by the West

• Adopt enough Western tech to protect its traditional culture.

• Overthrew Shogun and gave the emperor power in 1868 Meiji Restoration

• Meiji will restore the country

• Meiji Restoration - Japan visited the US and Europe to study and implement reforms:

• Abolished feudalism

• Established constitutional monarchy

• Established equality in law and fair punishment

• Reorganized the army and made a navy

• Created a new school system

• Built railroads and roads

• Subsidized industrialization

• Adopted Western ideas of imperialism

• Japanese people adopted Western military techniques and culture and some American styles of dress. Japan rapidly grew economically.The problems of industrialization followed into Japan.

  State Sponsored Industrialization:

• The government played a major role in industrialization.

• In some places like the Ottoman Empire and Qing China, industrialization was resisted.

• In other places like Russia and Japan, government intervention was able to encourage industrialization.

• for countries to industrialize they first had to adopt some cultural aspects of the West.

• Private Investment in Japan:

• While state sponsorship was important, private money was also key to industrialization.

• In many industrial nations, including Japan, foreign investment (money) was important to growth.

• In Japan, businesses were sold to zaibatsu, or powerful family businesses in Japan.

• Investors encourage industrialization.

• For example, in 1906 a company called the **Toyoda Loom Works .They made the automatic loom.**Eventually became Toyota Motor Company.

  Economic Developments and Innovations:

• As global trade and communication increased, mercantilist policies (extreme government control of the economy) were replaced by a laissez-faire (“leave alone”) policy that encouraged minimal government involvement in trade.Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations established support for capitalism and private ownership around the industrial world.

• Effects of Industrialization on Business Organization:

• Traditional Forms of Business Ownership:

• A sole (single) business owner or a small group of people who make business decisions

• Negatives:

• Single owners took lots of risks when starting a business. If they  failed, they were the only person to lose.

• Corporations:

• Business chartered by a government

• Owned by numerous stock holders

• Stockholders are paid when corp makes money

• Positives: If corp loses money, stockholders are okay (Limited liability). Lots of people lose a little, instead of one person losing a lot. In terms of corporations limited liability, only putting a portion into corporations helps people grow as well as businesses.

• Very economically and politically powerful

• Monopolies:

• Strong corporations that control and industry

• Eliminate competition

• Krupp steel in Germany

• Rockefeller oil in US

• Supporters of laissez-faire economics did not like monopolies, as they controlled the natural market

• the negative of monopolies is when on company runs all companies

• monopolies=bad

• corporations=good

• Transnational Companies:

• Companies that operate across national boundaries .Gained wealth and influence on a scale never before seen.

• Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation:

• British owned bank opened in the colony of Hong Kong in 1865

• Finance, corporate investment, and banking

• One of the first international banks

• Helped finance trade a grow the global economy

• De Beers Diamonds:

• Transnational corporation

• Cecil Rhodes was an investor in the trans-African railroad

• Goal to connect all British colonies in Africa.

• Would be helpful in time of war

• Project was never completed

• GB didn’t own all of the land they needed.

• The railroads that were built were built by African natives.

• Cheaper labor

• Railroads used to take as many native resources as possible

  Unilever Corporation:

• British and Dutch venture

• Made soap in Australia, Switzerland, and US

• Took palm oil for soap from British West Africa and Congo (another example of corps. mining resources from colonies)

  Effects of Industrialization on Mass Culture:

• **Consumerism:**A rise in living standards meant the average person was buying more

• **Advertisement:**To keep up with competition, companies began to advertise their product to the middle class.Middle class has money for non essential items.

• Leisure Activities: Riding bicycles.Wanted to escape from harsh reality of factories.

• **Growth of Sports:**Companies encouraged participation in sports.Sales of equipment made manufacturers money.Soccer (Europe) and baseball (US) became popular pastimes.

• Sports developed along class lines:

• Tennis/golf = rich

• Rugby = lower class

• **Material Goods/Entertainment:**Factories were rough. Wanted entertainment in free time.

• Building of Event Spaces - Public culture: parks, event halls, all classes mingled together

• growth of middle class, mass culture, entertainment, more culture, CONSUMER culture

  Reactions to the Industrial Economy:

• Context: Harsh conditions in places like coal mines and factories encouraged people to push for reforms.

• Social Reform

• Alternative views of society

• Workers unions

• Government sponsored reform

• Reform Movements:

• Labor Unions

• People knew reforms needed to happen because of dangerous, unsanitary working conditions, low wages, and long hours.

• Unions formed:Organizations of workers advocating for the right to bargain with employer.Right to a contract.

• Government treated unions as enemies of trade

• **Unions wanted:**Minimum wage, limits of work hours, overtime pay, 5 day work week

• **Voting Rights:**GB expanded voting access in 1832, 1867, 1884. Lowered amount of property white men needed to vote. All men could vote by 1918 in GB.All women by 1928.

• Child Labor:1843 - Children under age of 10 can’t work in mines.1881- Education becomes mandatory for British children.Focus on education changes the role of children.

• Germany is the first country to start protecting the rights of the workers, voting rights till very late

  Intellectual Reaction:

• Utopian Socialists offered new visions of society

• John Stuart Mill:

• **Laissez-faire capitalism was inhuman to laborers (**Wanted labor unions, limits to child labor, safe working conditions)

• Utilitarianism - “The greatest good for the greatest number of people”

• Moderate, rational, gradual reform

• Utopians wanted to replace capitalism, utilitarians wanted to fix the problems that existed.

• Karl Marx:- Offered ALTERNATIVE views of society

• German scholar and author who wanted socialism

• Wrote “Communist Manifesto”

• Capitalism is basically feudalism because some are rich and some are poor

• Proletariat = working class (poor)

• Bourgeoisie = middle class and upper class - investors who owned machinery and factories

• Bourgeoisie always exploited proletariat

• Under Socialism, social classes would not exist

• Proletariat would take control of means of production

• Wealth would be shared equally

• Marx is not Russian he is German

• the book is a success because the lower wage workers loved this concept, the government doesn’t

• Communist revolution could lead to disruption of capitalism

• original idea of Marx was to disrupt capitalism at all costs

  Ottoman Response to Industrialization:

• By the mid-1800’s the Ottomans were still very behind in terms of industrialization.

• In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II finally made some reforms:

• Abolished Janissaries

• Made new military trained by Europeans

• Abolished feudal system

• Military officers could no longer tax people.

• Built roads

• Made postal service

• Secularized charities

• Created European-style government ministries

• Tanzimat (reorganization) Reforms after Mahmud  (1839 - 1876):

• Root out corruption

• Secularized education

• Codified Ottoman laws

• Hatt-i Humayun

• Updated the legal system

• Equality for all men in education, government appointments, and justice regardless of ethnicity or religion

• The Ottoman economy finally became cash based, banking increased

• **Industrialization very slowly spread.**Mostly only helped men, women actually lost rights under Mahmud’s reforms.

• In the 1870’s onward, many Sultans were afraid of reform.

• Sultan Abdulhamid exiled “Young Turks” who wanted reform

• Created anger against minority groups

• Led to massacre of 100,000-250,000 Armenian Christians

• Known as “Red Sultain”

• Reform and industrialization halted

• The Ottomans saw the empire struggling so they tried to modernize the country

• starting to engage in westernized tactics

  Reform Efforts in China:

Self - Strengthening Movement:

• China’s reaction in the late 19th C. to the pressure to modernize (Qing dynasty)

• Strengthen China by

• Advancing military technology

• Manufacturing arms and ships

• Set up diplomatic corps to interact with other nations

• Customs to help collect taxes on imports and exports

• China must have a stable government that can collect taxes to remain.

• Hundred Days of Reform:

• After China last a war to Japan, reformer Kang Youwei called for

• Abolition of civil service exam

• Elimination of corruption

• Establishment of Western style industrial, commercial, and medical systems.

• Response to Reform:

• Dowager Cixi, Youwei aunt, didn’t want reform and led a coup to replace him.

• She feared foreign influence and resisted new technology like railroad and telegraph.

• She did, however, realize the civil service exam was corrupt and got rid of the 2.500 year old institution.

• Europe and China:

• Europe wanted China to change.

• Helped China modernize despite Boxer rebellion against foreign include and Cixi’s conservatism

• China became so weak they had to accept protection from Western powers who in return wanted trade.

• 1911, China becomes a republic.

• US helped China resist encroachment from surrounding eras.

• China was slow to industrialize, still.

• the Chinese government decide they need to reform their country

• modernize military and economy

• not like the Tanzinat reforms

• self strengthening movement=failure

  Resistance and limits to reform:

  Japan:

• 1871 Japan abolishes samurai

• Some served government as genros, some resisted change

• Wanted to stay autonomous from central government

• Tried to fight with government, and lost.

• Some reforms were more successful than others

• Education reforms improved literacy

• Economy rapidly industrialized

• Some democratic traits grew

• Free press

• Labor unions

• Individual liberties

• Ottoman Empire - Tried to industrialize, but nervous leaders who didn’t support reform hurt them.

• China - Industrialized later. Conservative leaders became more liberal, but reform took a while to spread.

• Japan - Rapidly industrialized with the Meiji restoration; Conservative members of society resisted change.

  The Effects of the Industrial Age of Society:

• Industrialization changed the way people lived.

• The middle class grew more comfortable

• The poor worked and lived in awful conditions

• Children Labored in Factories

• Poor women spent less time at home

• Middle-Class women felt stifled at home

• People began seeking more entertainment and leisure activities.

Effects of Urban areas:

For the first half of the 19th century, urban centers grew quickly with little planning by the government.

• Tenements (small apartment buildings)

• Urban poor families crammed together into poorly built construction buildings often owned by factory workers

• Located in slums

• Polluted water supplies

• Open sewers were common

• Diseases spread

• Fire, Crime, and violence

• Encouraged creation of fire and police departments to keep the peace

• Encouraged public health reform

• Better sewage systems

• Clean water

• Removing trash

• Effects on class structure:

• Industrialists and factory owners at the top

• “White - collar” workers were those who managed factory workers

• Office managers, etc. had some skill

• Growing middle class experienced higher standards of living

• This is what kept people moving to cities

• Factory workers were the lowest class( working class)

• Wages stayed low because workers weren’t skilled

• didn’t care about living conditions or how dirty they lived

• as a result of Jacob Reese and how the other half lives, governments start to make changes, sewer system, idea of clean water, garbage removal, cities start to beautify themselves, connects to growth of middle class

  Changes to Industrial Life:

Farm VS Factory

• Families used to spend their days near each other

• With Industrialization, people had to leave their families and neighborhoods.

• People had to get used to working on a schedule

• Exhaustion was common

• Injury and death were common

• Effects on Children:

• families needed more money, so they would send their children to work

• child labor

• since working conditions were poor, many children died

• Effect on women’s lives:

• Different classes of women were affected differently.

• paid less than men, worked in textile factories

• Middle - class women:“Cult of Domesticity” - advertisers glorifying the “housewife”(perfect children, clean house, and much more taxing to woman who worked and took care of the house)

• if women stayed at home they didn’t get an education

Effects on Environment: environment deteriorates, pollution

factories produced: disease

Legacy of the Industrial Revolution:

• People moved to cities(more crowding & crime) urbanization, population increases

• overcrowding of cities

• mass production (goods made cheaper)

• Environmental degradation

• Workplace shifted from homes to factories(changed family life)

• Global inequalities increased(Industrialized states overtook non-industrialized nations.)

• Imperialism (desire for colonization to find resources) grew.