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Chapter 5: Democratic Regimes
What is Democracy?
Democratic centralism Vladimir Lenin’s model of making political decisions centrally within the inner party elite, though ostensibly for the benefit of the majority of the people
Democracy is a political system in which all of the people of the state or political division are involved in making decisions about its affairs, typically by electing representatives to a parliament or similar assembly.
Democracy a system of government by the whole population
Indirect democracy allows the people to choose representatives to exercise policymaking power.
Direct democracy allows the people to vote directly on whether a policy will be enacted or not.
A political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections
In most instances, the people wield power over the policies of the state through indirect democracy, which means they vote for representatives who will be empowered with policymaking authority.
Member of Parliament (MP) an official elected to represent constituents in the legislature in a parliamentary system
Constituency a geographic area represented by a member in the legislature
Another, but less common, method of empowering the people with political decision making is through direct democracy, which allows the people to vote directly on a policy question, rather than entrusting that power to a representative body.
Direct democracy a form of democracy in which the people may vote directly on matters of policy rather than only to elect representatives
Referendum is when the government proposes a specific policy change to voters, at which point a national election is held in which voters cast a “yes” or “no” vote on the question.
A successful “yes” vote means the policy becomes binding law.
Referendum a direct vote by members of the public on a policy matter whose result is expected to be binding in law
Plebiscite a direct vote by members of the public on a policy matter; unlike a referendum, the result of a plebiscite is not binding on the government
The active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life
Civil society is defined as the aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest the will of the people.
Civil society non-governmental groups, such as clubs, religious organizations, charitable groups, and interest groups, formed by citizens to express a particular interest
Countries in which civil society is formed organically, with associational autonomy (the freedom for people to join, leave, and speak freely in these groups), are called pluralist societies.
Plurality a condition of receiving the most votes, though not necessarily a majority, for elective office
Associational autonomy the concept that citizens have a right to independently form organized groups to express a particular interest
Pluralism is characterized by a large, healthy, and freely organized civil society in which policymaking authorities are influenced by civil society organizations, who themselves are in free competition with each other for the attention of the policymakers.
Pluralism a system in which autonomous, independently formed groups freely attempt to influence the policymaking process of the government in competition with one another
State corporatism a system to influence policymaking: the state establishes or selects groups to represent various interests rather than allow independently formed groups to participate
Protection of the human rights of all citizens
Democracy is rooted in the concept of “majority rule,” but equally important in its definition is the idea that there are a set of fundamental rights of all people, including the minority, which cannot be violated no matter what the will of the majority may be.
Democracies allow all people to freely engage in these and other activities, provided they do not violate the rights of other individuals.
Liberal democracies adhere to these requirements of respecting the rights of the people in addition to holding regular, free, fair, competitive elections.
Liberal democracy a system of government by the whole population with an emphasis on principles of classical liberalism, including protection of rights and freedom of expression
Illiberal democracies will hold elections in which the winning candidate is in fact the candidate with the most votes, and does in fact come to wield political power, yet significant restrictions and violations of these rights occur consistently enough that it calls the very democratic legitimacy of the elections into question.
Illiberal democracy a regime in which, despite the fact that elections determine who holds political office and wields power, protection of civil rights and liberties is missing and the fairness and competitiveness of elections are questionable
Transitional democracies, which are former authoritarian systems attempting to integrate democratic practices into the regime, may also not yet display the full characteristics of liberal democracies, given the resistance to change of the former power elites, or the lack of an established democratic political culture among the people.
Transitional democracy a regime transitioning from authoritarianism to liberal democracy but where democracy has not yet been consolidated
A rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens
Rule of law is a concept that has emerged and evolved gradually over human history, beginning (in Western tradition, at least) with the Magna Carta in England in 1215.
Rule of law restricting the arbitrary exercise of power by subjecting the government to well-defined established limitations in law
Magna Carta an agreement made between England’s king and nobility in 1215 that established limitations on the power of the king; an early example of constitutionalism
The government is limited by a constitution, a basic set of laws that define and codify the extent and limitations on the power of the government and each of the state’s institutions
Constitution a body of fundamental laws, principles, and established preferences that a state acknowledges it is governed under
Constitutionalism commitment to the rule of law through the principles expressed in a constitution
The Role of Political Parties
In democratic regimes, political parties nominate candidates for office, organize majority rule, recruit elites to run the government, educate voters, and make participation simpler for the average voter.
A political party is an institution that seeks to gain control of government for the purpose of wielding political power to achieve goals common to its members.
Political parties organizations of individuals seeking to win control of government and wield political power by running candidates for office and winning elections or otherwise, depending on the rules of the political system
Parties perform a series of crucial roles to make large-scale democracy possible.
Parties are distinct from interest groups and other civil society institutions in a few important ways.
Interest group an organization of people who support a common interest and work together to protect and promote that interest by influencing the government
Interest groups begin the process of interest articulation, in which the group communicates the common interest of its members with relevant policymakers, government officials, and the public at large.
Interest articulation a way for members of a society to express their needs to a system of government
Interest aggregation, which is the combining of the interests of many individuals and groups into a formal policy program.
Interest aggregation activity in which political demands of groups are combined into policy programs
Election Systems
While there are certainly many basic core principles that all liberal democracies have in common, no two democracies are created identically.
Every country establishes its own system based on its founding circumstances, historical progression, and social conditions.
Legislative Representation: Proportional Representation or Single-Member-District?
In a proportional representation system (PR), there is a large geographic constituency (perhaps even the entire country) that will elect a large number of representatives.
Proportional representation (PR) an election system for a legislature that gives each political party a percentage of seats in the legislature approximately equal to the percentage of the vote the party received in the election
Voters in the constituency cast a vote not for an individual candidate, but rather for a political party.
Proportional Representation systems give parties seats based on the percent of vote they receive.
Single-member-district systems give seats only to the candidate with the most votes in each district.
Single-member-district (SMD) an election system in which one representative is chosen to represent each geographic constituency in a legislature
A coalition government occurs when parties “team” together to choose a government (likely a prime minister and cabinet), and compromise with each other on a policy agenda for the legislative session.
Single-member-district systems divide the country into many constituencies, each of which will allow one “single member” to represent the constituency in the legislature.
Proportional systems tend to create multiparty democracies.
Single-member-district systems tend to create two-party systems.
Coalition government in parliamentary systems, a situation where multiple parties partner to construct a majority and form a government
First-past-the-post (FPTP) an election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins representation of a geographic district in the legislature; losing candidates or parties do not receive any representation
Two-party system a system in which two large, broad-based ideological parties are the only meaningful competitors for control of the government, though minor parties may still run and win small amounts of representation
How to Choose the Executive: Presidential or Parliamentary?
Executive power is also wielded by an elected official in a democracy, but the way the executive is chosen can vary greatly from state to state.
Presidential systems let the voters directly elect the executive.the voters cast a direct vote for a specific candidate to serve as the chief executive, usually, though not always, titled “president.”
Presidential system a system of government in which the chief executive is directly elected by voters in a separate election from the legislature, resulting in a separation of powers between branches of government, along with the possibility of divided government
Separation of powers dividing the executive, legislative, and judicial powers and functions of government into distinct institutions
Divided government a condition in a presidential system wherein the executive branch is controlled by one party and the legislative branch is controlled by an opposing party
Parliamentary systems give the legislature the power to choose the executive, usually the leader of the majority party.
Parliamentary system a system of government that fuses executive and legislative powers; the chief executive (usually called prime minister) is a member of the legislature and is chosen by the legislature
A prime minister comes to power first by earning the role of party leader among his or her fellow party legislators, and then by leading the party to victory in a national election.
Vote of no confidence a vote by the legislature in a parliamentary system to force the resignation of the prime minister and cabinet and call for new elections
Executive Roles: Head of State and Head of Government
Head of state functions involve the ceremonial responsibility of an individual to display the pomp, majesty, power, and might of the state in formal settings, whether they be welcoming foreign dignitaries, presiding over national celebrations, or giving speeches to inspire patriotic loyalty from the people.
Head of state the individual in the executive branch who acts as the ceremonial symbol of the country at public events
Head of government, who is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the policies of the state, including overseeing disbursements from the treasury, regulation of industry, and law enforcement.
Presidential systems tend to unite the two roles into a single individual (usually the president), while parliamentary systems are more likely to divide the roles between two distinct leaders.
Head of government the individual in the executive branch responsible for the day-to-day operation of the government
Conclusion: The Inevitability of Democratization?
In 1989, former Vice President Dan Quayle famously said, “I believe we are on an irreversible trend toward more freedom and democracy, but that could change.”
Although 1989 and beyond has seen a remarkable increase in the number of states around the world that elect their leaders, the path to democratization is never an easy one.
Multiparty system a party system in which many large and small political parties compete for political power and win representation in the government