Unit 1 - Renaissance and Exploration (c. 1450 to c. 1648)

The Renaissance was characterized by an interest in Ancient Greek and Roman literature and philosophy, which was used to develop new ideas. This began with Francesco Petrarch in the 1300s. He was responsible for a new philosophy called humanism, which emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature, and valued human nature and accomplishments. Some Humanists furthered the values of secularism and individualism. They focused on the present, instead of the afterlife which was important in the middle ages. During this period, Greek and Latin literature were popularized because of the development of the printing press, which streamlined book production. Humanists challenged the power of the catholic church and moved away from theological works, focusing on scientific inquiry.

Florence was ruled at the time by the Medici family, who were bankers. Lorenzo (Medici) the Magnificent advocated for civic humanism, the idea that it was the duty of citizens to be involved in politics and help the community.

Individual behavior was modeled in works such as Castiglione’s Book of The Courtier, which was a training manual for the ideal gentleman, and how to rise in society to the top. Political behavior was modeled by books such as Machiavelli’s The Prince.

The Northern Renaissance retained a more religious outlook, resulting in human-focused naturalism that made everyday humans and life the center of artistic works. Christian humanism, which was written about by Erasmus, employed renaissance learning in the service of religious reform.

The “Prince of Humanists” Desiderius Erasmus was famous for wanting to unite classical Italian ideals like humanism and civic virtue with biblical values like love and piety. He took inspiration from classical writers and original church fathers. He created Greek and Latin versions of the New Testament and wrote the satirical work The Praise of Folly criticizing religious and political institutions. He believed education was the key to all reform. Because of his criticism of Catholicism, he was accused of inspiring Martin Luther.

Thomas More, an English humanist, wrote Utopia in 1516, which was about an island outside of Europe where children receive an education in the Greek and Roman classics and problems have been solved by government. Religions are tolerated and there is no disagreement.

Unit 2 - Age of Reformation (c. 1450 to c. 1648)

Reformers John Calvin and Martin Luther criticized the Catholic church and established new interpretations of Christian doctrine and practice. Signs of disorder and abuse in the church were: clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, unfair clerical privileges, and clerical plurality/absenteeism.

Martin Luther was an Augustinian monk who studied the New Testament and came to believe that salvation was obtained by faith alone. He believed that the scriptures revealed God to people, not the traditions of the Catholic church.

During this time, Pope Leo X authorized a special indulgence to finance the building of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Sales in Germany were run by a Dominican friar, Johann Tetzel, who promised that the purchase of the indulgence would bring full forgiveness for one’s sins or the sin’s of a loved one in purgatory.

This was troubling to Martin Luther, who wrote his ninety-five theses, nailing it to the door of the church in Wittenburg on October 31, 1517. Luther continued to write about church reforms. His works were condemned by Rome and he was threatened with excommunication. In 1521, the Holy Roman Emperor calls an assembly of nobility and clergy in the city of Worms and calls Luther to appear. He does so and refuses to take back what he has written.

After the Diet of Worms, German states continued to experience religious division. Charles V agreed to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, recognizing Protestantism and allowing German princes to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism.

The first area outside of Germany to accept the reformation was the kingdom of Denmark-Norway under King Christian III (r. 1536-1559). The conversion went smoothly and quickly in Denmark, but was resisted in Norway and Iceland. In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa helped bring Protestantism to the region.

John Calvin used the ideas of God’s sovereignty and his omnipotence to conclude that human beings could do nothing to save themselves, and that God had decided at the beginning of time who would and who would not be saved (predestination). Calvin and the government of Geneva, Switzerland tried to create a godly citizen by banning recreational activities like dancing and card playing.

James Knox, who studied in Geneva with Calvin, succeeded in convincing the Scottish government to set up a Calvinist church as the official state Church of Scotland (Presbyterianism).