Myers' Psychology Second Edition For AP Unit 6: Learning 

Module 26: How We Learn and Classical Conditioning 

How Do We Learn?

• Learning us the process if acquiring new and relative information or behaviors
• Learning allows us to adapt to our environments
• Learning allows us to expect certain events like dinner or pain 
• Learning also causes us to repeat actions that offer rewards and to avoid actions that don't 
• Humans learn behaviors through observation 
• Humans learn through association 
• Behaviors are often associated with context 
• Behaviors become habits, on average, after 66 days 
• Associative learning connects two events together 
• Conditioning is the process of learning associations 
• There are two types of conditioning: Classical and Operant
• Classical conditioning associates two events. When one event occurs, we expect the other to follow 
• Operant conditioning associates a response with its consequence 
• Cognitive learning is learning that acquires mental information. This information is then used to guide behavior 
• Observational learning is a type of cognitive learning 

Classical Conditioning 

• Ivan Pavlov did research classical conditioning 
• Pavlov's work inspired John B. Watson 
• Watson focused his research on behaviorism 
• Both did not like "mentalistic" concepts like consciousness 
• Both believed basic learning could be found across all animals 
• Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning through which all organisms adapt to their environment 

Pavlov's Experiments 

• Pavlov noticed that when food was brought near a dog, the dog would salivate. The dog would salivate at the sight of the food as well as the taste. They used this information to see what other stimulants would cause the salvation. It was found that the dog would anticipate the food through the other stimulants, such as sound and sight.  
• Neutral stimuli do not give a response before conditioning 
• Unconditioned responses are unlearned and happen naturally 
• Unconditioned stimulus are natural and automatic. They trigger a unconditioned response 
• Conditioned responses are learned 
• Conditioned Stimulus are irrelevant until they are associated with an unconditioned stimulus. They trigger a conditioned response 
• Conditioned = Learned 
• Unconditioned = Unlearned
• There are 5 major conditioning processes: Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination 

Acquisition 

• Acquisition is initial learning 
• This is what causes something to become a conditioned response 
• Higher order conditioning is what causes other things, such as sound, to cause the same response 
• Higher order conditioning is weaker than first order conditioning 

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery 

• Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus no longer gives the unconditioned stimulus
• Extinction occurs when the result no longer occurs 
• Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response. The spontaneous recovery is usually weaker, showing that extinction is rather suppressing than elimination  

Generalization

• Generalization occurs when there is a response to something that is similar to the original stimulus 
• Generalization is adaptive 
• Emotional reactions often occur 

Discrimination 

• Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between stimuli 
• Recognizing this difference is adaptive 

Pavlov's Legacy 

• Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning 
• Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned 
• Learning can be studied objectively  

Applications of Classical Conditioning 

• Classical conditioning can be used to get people to stop taking drugs
• Classical conditioning works in the immune system 
• The Little Albert experiment would be unethical under today's standards

Module 27: Operant Conditioning 

Operant Conditioning 

• Classical conditioning forms an association between stimulus
• Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior 
• Operant conditioning associates an organism's actions with its consequence 
• Actions followed by reinforces increase
• Actions followed by punishers decrease 

Skinner's Experiments 

• Skinner worked on the law of effect 
• The law of effect shows that favorable consequences make actions more likely. Unfavorable consequences make actions less likely 
• Skinner designed an Operant Chamber for many of his experiments 
• Reinforcers strengthen responses 

Shaping Behavior 

• Shaping is gradually guiding actions toward the desired behavior 
• In order to shape a behavior, you must first watch how the subject naturally behaves 
• Successive approximations allow you to get closer to the desired behavior 
• Shaping allows us to understand what nonverbal organisms perceive 
• Discriminative stimulus elicits a response after an association has been formed 

Types of Reinforcers

• Positive reinforcers provide something pleasurable after a response 
• Negative reinforcers strengthen a response by removing something negative 
• Negative reinforcement is not a punishment 
• Reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens behavior 

Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers 

• Primary resources are unlearned 
• Conditioned reindeers are learned associates with the primary reinforcers 

Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers

• If a delay lasts longer than 30 seconds, the desired action will not be learned, in rats 
• Humans do respond to delayed reinforcers, such as a paycheck 
• For some people, the immediate reward seems better than the long term one 

Reinforcement Schedules 

• Reinforcement schedules will vary 
• Continuous reinforcement is best for mastering a behavior 
• Extinction occurs rapidly 
• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement is when reinforcement is sometimes there and sometimes not 
• Learning is slower, but so is extinction
• Fixed-ratio schedules occur after a set number of responses 
• Variable-ratio schedules occur after an unpredictable amount of responses 
• Fixed-interval schedules our after a fixed time period 
• Variable-interval schedules occur after varying time intervals 
• Response rates tend to be higher when liked to a ratio schedule than to interval schedules. However, responding is more consistent with variable schedules than with fixed 

Punishment 

• Punishment decreases behavior 
• Swift and sure punishers are powerful in restaining unwanted behavior 
• Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten 
• Punishment teaches discrimination among certain situations 
• Punishment can teach fear 
• Physical punishment can increase aggression in the victim 
• Punishment tells you what not to do 
• Reinforcement tells you what to do 

Skinner's Legacy 

• Skinner believed external influences shaped behavior 

Module 28: Operant Conditioning's Applications, and Comparison to Classical Conditioning 

Applications of Operant Conditioning 

At School 

• Skinner believed learning would happen in small steps with many reinforcers 
• Electronic adaptive quizzes allow students to go at their own pace and at the correct level of understanding 
• Electronic quizzes also provide immediate feedback for students 

In Sports 

• Reinforcing small success and gradually increasing the challenge is best for sports 
• Accidental timing of rewards can lead to superstitious behavior 

At Work 

• Many organizations allow workers to share the risks and rewards of the company 
• Some companies focus on rewarding "job well dones" 
• Rewards can increase productivity 
• Reinforcement should be immediate 
• Paychecks are good, but so is verbal and written affirmation 

At Home 

• Using angry voices and cause a child to have fear and do the desired outcome, causing parents to do it again 
• Being angry at a child can lead to a bad parent-child relationship 
• Give children attention and affirmation when they are behaving well 

For Self-Improvement 

• Operant conditioning can be used to build self control
• Set measurable goals and announce them 
• Monitor how long you engage in the desired behavior 
• Reinforce your desired behavior 
• Reduce rewards gradually 

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning 

• Classical conditioning has automatic responses 
• This is referred to as respondent behaviors 
• Operant conditioning associates behaviors with their consequences 
• The stimuli are operant behaviors 

Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning 

Biological Constraints on Conditioning 

• All animals share common evolutionary history and therefore share commonalities in makeup and functioning 
• Natural responses could be conditioned to any neutral stimulus 

Limits on Classical Conditioning 

• An animal's capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology 
• Animals learn associations that are important for survival 
• Taste aversion only applies to taste, other senses do not cause any reaction
• Natural selection favors traits that help survival 
• Natural selection also deals with sex. Things that increase the want to reproduce will be more associated  

Limits on Operant Conditioning 

• Humans learn and retain behaviors that reflect biological predispositions
• Food is a good reinforcer 
• The instinctive drift causes animals to revert back to their biologically predisposed patterns 

Cognition's Influence on Conditioning 

Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning 

• Pavlov and Watson studied the effects of cognitive processes 
• Animals can learn the predictability of an event 
• Animals learn expectancy, which is the awareness of how likely the unconditioned stimulus will occur 
• Associations influence attitudes 
• Likes and dislikes are stronger when people are aware of the association 

Cognitive Processes and Operant Conditioning 

• Skinner believed thoughts and emotions were behaviors and that the followed the same rules as other behaviors 

Latent Learning

• A cognitive map is a mental layout of one's environment 
• Latent learning occurs automatically, but is not noticed until someone is forced to demonstrate 

Insight Learning

• Insight is a sudden realization
• Insight is randomly understanding how to solve a problem 

Intrinsic Motivation

• Giving a reward for something a person already enjoys can backfire
• Too many rewards can destroy intrinsic motivation
• Intrinsic motivation is the desire to do a behavior because you enjoy it and want to 
• Extrinsic motivation is doing something solely to get the reward (or avoid punishment) 
• A person can have both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to do something 

Learning and Personal Control

• Everyone needs to learn how to cope with stress 
• Stressors can be addressed directly 
• Problem focused coping helps deal with stressors 
• Problem focused strategies allow us to take control over a situation and try to make a change 
• Emotion focused coping causes us to believe there is no chance to change a situation 
• Emotion focused strategies can be adaptive 

Learned Helplessness

• Uncontrollable threats trigger the strongest stress response 
• Learned helplessness occurs when someone is unable to avoid repeated hurtful events 
• Feeling like you have a loss of control can make you feel stressed or ill 
• Increasing self control can lead to improved health and morale
• Increasing self control can lead to better alertness, more activity, and being happier 
• High status can lead to more stress 
• Losing control leads to more stress hormones, increased blood pressure, and lesser immune response 

Internal Versus External Locus of Control

• People who believe in external locus of control think that outside forces determine individual fate 
• Those who believe in internal locus of control think that everyone controls their own destiny 
• Studies show that those who believe in the internal theory do better in school, work, are more independent, and have better health
• More Americans endorse external locus of control 

Depleting and Strengthening Self Control 

• A person with self control is able to control their impulses and wait for long term rewards 
• Self control can fluctuate 
• Self control weakness after it is used, gets better with rest, and becomes stronger with exercise 
• Willpower can delete blood sugar and the neural activity that is associated with focus  

Module 30: Learning by Observation 

• Observational learning is also called social learning 
• Observational learning causes us to learn without direct experience, by watching and imitating others 
• Modeling is observing and imitating a specific behavior 
• Watching models causes us to experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment 

Mirrors and imitation in the Brain 

• Some scientists believe mirror neurons fire when someone performs a certain action
• Some scientists believe mirror neurons can also fire when watching someone perform that behavior 
• Imitation is widespread through species 
• Imitation is pervasive in humans 
• Children tend to overimitate 
• Children have empathy and the ability to infer another person's mental state 

Applications of Observational Learning 

Prosocial Effects 

• Prosocial means positive or helpful 
• Prosocial models can lead to prosocial effects 
• Models are most effective when actions and words are consistent 
• Models can say one thing but do another 

Antisocial Effects

• Negative modeling can lead to negative effects
• TV and the Internet can have negative effects