The Dual Alliance was formed on 7th October 1879. This alliance was between Germany and Austria-Hungary. They were natural allies as they shared a language, culture and history. The two nations pledged to aid each other in the event of an attack by Russia. Also, each state promised neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power. Initially, this alliance was conceived by Germany to keep an eye on Austria’s activities in the Balkans to avoid conflict with Russia.

The Triple Alliance was formed on 20th May 1882. The alliance was between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Each country promised to provide military support to the others if one was attacked by two other powers. Italy had the weaker military forces and was viewed as a minor partner. Italy promised to help defend Germany and Austria-Hungary; however, they made it clear that they never wanted to find themselves in direct conflict with Great Britain, as they were fearful of the might of the Royal Navy. However, at this time, war with Great Britain seemed very unlikely.

The Franco-Russian Alliance was formed on 18th August 1892. This alliance was between France and Russia. After the Franco-Prussian War, France was determined to protect itself against Germany. France had developed a close friendship with Russia and they signed a deal to help each other out if either of them was attacked. This would mean that Germany would be attacked from opposite sides because it is wedged between France and Russia. Although a former ally of Germany, and though Russia had no serious conflict with Germany, it was increasingly unsettled by the growing relationship of Austria and Germany and the unpredictable nature of Kaiser Wilhelm II meant that ensuring his own nation’s security, by now allying with France, was far more feasible than attempting to heal the problems Russia and Germany now faced.

The Entente Cordiale was formed on 8th April 1904. This alliance was between Britain and France. Having been involved in three rounds of Anglo-German negotiations (1898-1901), Britain decided not to join the Triple Alliance. Britain had fought a war against a group of settlers who wanted their independence (the Boers). Germany had supported the Boers. France felt threatened by the signing of the Triple Alliance; Britain was also concerned by the growth of the German Navy. When the Russo-Japanese War was about to erupt (1904), France and Britain found themselves being dragged into the conflict on the side of their allies. France was allied with Russia, while Britain was allied with Japan. In order to avoid war, Britain and France signed the Entente Cordiale (friendly understanding) to settle many long-standing issues. The objective of the alliance was to encourage co-operation against the perceived threat of Germany, but Britain made sure that this agreement placed no obligation on Britain to take military action in any future conflict.

The Triple Entente was formed on 31st August 1907. Although the Triple Entente didn’t technically exist, it was formed after Britain and Russia made a friendly agreement. France and Russia were already in the Franco-Russian Alliance and this was strengthened in 1907 when Britain joined the deal as a response to the ever-growing threat presented by Germany and the Kaiser. Despite Britain’s alliance with Japan, neither Britain nor Russia wanted to fight one another. So after the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, and a greater risk laying in the possibility of a war or a crisis in another country escalating, Russia and Britain formally made the Anglo-Russian Entente. In contrast to the Triple Alliance, the terms of the Entente didn’t require each country to go to war. Concerned about the possibility of Austria-Hungary increasing the size of its empire, Russia promised to help Serbia if she was attacked by members of the Triple Alliance.

Wilhelm became Kaiser in 1888, aged 29. He had spent most of his adult life in the Army and as Kaiser he was determined to maintain a powerful army. He took a great interest in military tactics and had a passion for wearing military uniforms because he felt that they associated him with Germany’s powerful army. It was well known that although the Kaiser was very energetic with a strong and outgoing personality, he could often be unpredictable and rude.

The Kaiser felt that Germany should be a global power. At this time, many other European countries, such as France and Britain, had large overseas empires. The Kaiser decided that Germany needed a large empire, with control over colonies in different parts of the world, in order for Germany to be a global power. This idea was known as Weltpolitik. So, in the late 1800s, Germany began to conquer other nations, particularly in Africa.

The Kaiser wanted a large navy of powerful battleships for several reasons:

• He thought it would help Germany take over more countries and protect the countries already in the German Empire

• He wanted the German Navy to rival Britain’s huge navy. Germany spent huge

  sums of money on increasing the size of the Navy at this time. The size of the

  German Army was increased too. Taxes were raised and money was borrowed

  to pay for it – and Germany would remain in debt for a very long time.

The Kaiser’s aims and actions increased the tension between European nations. The desire for more colonies alarmed countries that already had empires of their own. They wondered whether the Kaiser would challenge them for their colonies, which could lead to war. The fact that the Kaiser began building up his army and navy only increased this tension. It led other nations to build up their armies and navies too. Many nations began to draw out detailed defence (and attack) plans in preparation for war. It is no coincidence that this was the time when most of the powerful European nations began to form alliances. The Kaiser himself became a very unpopular figure in Britain when he gave an interview in 1908 with the Daily Telegraph newspaper, by saying: ‘you English are mad, mad, mad as March hares!’

By the late 1800s the British Empire was the largest the world had ever known. Britain was the richest and most powerful nation on earth, with the biggest navy, the most colonies, and the best trade links. The security of this empire depended on the strength of Britain’s navy. It was needed to protect Britain’s colonies and secure its trade routes. In 1889, a new British law, called the ‘Two-Power Standard’, stated that Britain’s navy should be, at least, equal in size to the combined strength of the next two largest navies in the world (which were France and Russia at the time). The government made £20 million available (around £1.7 billion today) to build more new warships. The British felt they did not need any military or economic allies because of how powerful their navy and empire was.

In the 1900s, the most powerful European nations started to split themselves into two alliances. Britain’s position began to look less splendid, as the situation in Europe unfolded, and a little too isolated, particularly in the face of an increasingly aggressive Germany:

• The British and French had clashed over control of colonies in north Africa, and nearly went to war in the late 1800s. However, agreements were made over the colonies, which brought the nations close together

• From 1898, Germany began to build up its navy. The Kaiser began to talk of making Germany a global power. His naval and colonial plans were a threat to Britain’s power

• Germany and Austria-Hungary joined together in an alliance, and Italy later joined

• France and Russia joined together in an alliance

• Germany supported the Boers, a group of settlers in the British colony of South Africa who had rebelled against British rule. This angered the British.

In 1903, Britain’s King Edward VII, while holidaying in the Mediterranean, heard that the French President was also visiting the region. Edward sent four battleships as a mark of respect to salute the President, who was delighted with this gesture and invited Edward to Paris. The subsequent visit was a brilliant success and almost overnight greater cooperation between the two nations began. In 1904, the Entente Cordiale was signed between Britain and France. In 1907, Britain was allied to two other European powers – and was no longer in Splendid Isolation.

Morocco was one of the few areas of Africa that had not been colonised by Europe. As part of the Entente Cordiale, the British agreed to support France’s attempts to take over Morocco. Spain and Italy both said they had no objection to France’s plans.

Angered by its exclusion from the decisions made about North Africa, Germany believed that the Anglo-French Entente was attempting to challenge Germany’s influence. Germany was building up her own African empire and had colonies in central and southern Africa. The Kaiser was keen to show that Germany was an important power in North Africa as well.

The Kaiser arrived in Tangier on 31st March 1905 to pledge his support for Morocco’s ruler, the Sultan Abdelaziz, in what became known as the open-door speech, including a horse ridden tour of Tangier, in which the Kaiser announced he supported Moroccan independence. This was a direct challenge to France’s ambitions. It quickly became clear that the Kaiser had no real interest in Morocco, and just wanted to disrupt the Anglo-French Entente. As news spread of the crisis, many wondered whether this would lead to war between Germany and France. Despite Kaiser Wilhelm’s actions, the Entente relationship strengthened due to their mutual suspicion of Germany. It seems that the Kaiser had several aims:

• He wanted to test the French to see how far they could be pushed

• He wanted to test the strength of the Entente Cordiale

• He wanted to demonstrate that Germany intended to become fully involved in world affairs and was very interested in the expansion of Germany’s empire.

In London, the government was furious with Germany and made it known that Great Britain would not accept a German port in Morocco, as this could threaten their ports in Gibraltar. Edward VII was angered by what he saw as a cheap, but potentially dangerous, publicity stunt by his nephew. Edward assured Paris that the French had Britain’s support.

In order to bring the crisis to a close, Germany sought a conference where the French could be called to account before other European powers. The French refused, maintaining the view that there was no need for such a conference. Germany then threatened war and began to ready her troops; however, with the French Prime Minister, Maurice Rouvier, being simultaneously new and weak, France refused to risk war with Germany, and on 1st July 1905, France agreed to an international conference, to be attended by all the major European nations (and the USA), which was eventually held in Algeciras (southern Spain) between 16th January – 7th April 1906.

However, the conference was humiliating for Germany. The Kaiser wanted to be seen as a major power in Africa. Instead his views were rejected. He was treated as if he had no right to speak on such matters. This made him bitter. He was also alarmed by the way Britain and France stuck together at the conference to oppose him. These old rivals now seemed very close. Only Austria- Hungary supported the Germans and it was decided that France could have special rights in Morocco. France had the firm support of Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain, and the United States.

Although the French were stopped from colonising Morocco and including it as part of their empire, they gained a foothold in the country by being given joint control of the Moroccan police, but it also guaranteed equality of trade and economic freedom for every nation and limited any colonial action by any nation without consultation with the other signatories. More importantly, Britain and Russia had stood firm against Germany in their support for France. The Kaiser could now be in no doubt that the Entente Cordiale was more than just a ‘friendly understanding’. Furthermore, in the wake of the crisis, the relationship between Britain and Russia improved and soon Britain, Russia and France formed the Triple Entente.

For many years, the Balkans were part of the Ottoman Empire. However, by the early 1900s, the Turkish Empire was weak and different countries within the Balkans had rebelled against Turkish rule. Some, such as Greece and Serbia, had won their freedom and become independent. Others, such as Bulgaria, had become semi-independent. This meant that Bulgarian politicians controlled everything within Bulgaria, but the country itself had to support Turkey in times of war. As Turkey weakened, some of the larger nations that surrounded the Balkans (e.g. Austria-Hungary and Russia) saw this as an opportunity to gain land themselves.

In 1908, there was a rebellion in Turkey; Austria-Hungary took advantage of this and seized control of Bosnia, one of the small Slav states that had been under Turkish control. Nearby Serbia was angered by Austria-Hungary’s invasion of a fellow Slav nation and asked Russia to take action. Russia had strong cultural and religious links to Serbia and had been a supporter of Serbia for a long time; however, Russia had signed a secret agreement years before that Russia would not challenge Austria-Hungary’s intention for Bosnia. So, Russia called for an international conference to discuss Austria-Hungary’s actions.

The Kaiser was unhappy that Austria-Hungary had taken over Bosnia. However, he promised to fully support Austria-Hungary. After all, Austria-Hungary had fully supported Germany at the Algeciras Conference in 1906. Now Russia faced a dilemma: stand up for Serbia and Bosnia and take on both Austria-Hungary and Germany, or back down? For now, Russia backed down. It was not prepared to risk war at this time because it felt that it was not strong enough to take on the Germans. The Balkan Crisis of 1908-9 (sometimes known as the Bosnian Crisis) had a major effect on the countries involved:

• Most people in Bosnia resented Austro-Hungarian rule and wanted to join with Serbia

• Several secret societies were formed in Serbia and Bosnia. Their main aim was to get rid of Austro-Hungarian influence in the Balkans. Many were prepared to use violence to achieve this

• Russia had been forced to back down against Germany. They vowed this would not happen again and began building more weapons

• Austria-Hungary felt it now had the full support of Germany, which would affect how Austria-Hungary acted in the years to come

• Italy was unhappy with Austria-Hungary’s expansion into the Balkans. As a result, this weakened the relationship between the two countries and the Triple Alliance.

In 1911, a rebellion against the ruling Sultan of Morocco broke out in the capital city of Fez. The Sultan asked the French for help and the French Government sent 20,000 soldiers to fight the rebels, claiming they were protecting European lives and property. The Kaiser accused the French of invading Morocco and sent a warship named Panther to the port of Agadir as a show of strength on 1st July. The British were worried about the arrival of the warship in Morocco. Britain had a navy base nearby in Gibraltar, and it looked like Germany might be trying to create a navy base in Agadir. Britain sent its Dreadnoughts to Morocco, just in case war broke out in an attempt to scare Germany into backing down.

After a terrible financial crisis in Germany, the Germans informed the French Government, on 7th July, that Germany had no territorial aspirations in Morocco. A series of conferences between Germany, France and Britain were then held and eventually a peaceful solution was found. Britain and France, again, stood firm against Germany, and the Kaiser decided to back down and ordered the warship to leave Agadir. With the Moroccan Rebellion now quashed, France ended what remained of Morocco’s independence, but Germany was given some land in Central Africa as compensation for accepting French influence in Morocco.

Behind the scenes, Britain and France reached an agreement that the French should patrol the Mediterranean and the Royal Navy should defend France’s Atlantic and North Sea coasts. The Kaiser agreed to back down in the face of firm opposition, but the crisis showed how tense the situation was. The results of the second Moroccan crisis were far-reaching:

• Germany was humiliated – and was unlikely to back down again from an international crisis

• Many German people fully supported the Kaiser and his actions. When he talked of war, they would support him on this matter too

• Britain was now convinced that Germany was a threat to European peace. It is no coincidence that Britain began to build more and more battleships after this crisis

• Italy had not supported Germany, and this weakened the Triple Alliance. From now on, Germany would look to Austria-Hungary as their main ally

Turkey grew weaker in the first few years of the 1900s and gradually lost more and more of its empire. In fact, Turkey was known as ‘the sick man of Europe’. In 1911, Italy beat Turkish forces in the Italian-Turkish War and took control of Turkish land in North Africa and an island in the Aegean Sea. Several countries in the Balkans now saw this as a chance to finally drive the Turks completely out of Europe and gain full independence from Turkish rule. Four nations – Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria and Montenegro – joined forced and prepared to fight the Turks. They were known as the Balkan League

The Balkan League was initially set up to expel the Turks from the Balkans. However, the creation of the League was also encouraged by Russia, who felt that a strong group of mainly Slav nations would be a great ally for them – and perhaps deter any ambitions that Austria-Hungary might have in the region.

In October 1912, the war began when Turkey was attacked. It was a quick and brutal war, lasting just 50 days, in which around half a million soldiers fought. Turkey lost and, at a peace conference in London in May 1913, agreed to withdraw from all the areas in Europe it had controlled. Albania, a nation in the Balkans formally under Turkish control, gained its independence. The remaining land was shared amongst the countries of the Balkan League.

Soon after the First Balkan War ended, the Balkan nations began to argue over the amount of land they had each taken from Turkey. The King of Bulgaria felt his country should have had more, and declared war on Serbia and Greece in order to get it.

Turkey joined in this Second Balkan War and fought against Bulgaria. Romania joined in too, also against Bulgaria, hoping to gain land from Bulgaria. The war was a disaster for Bulgaria and, by the end of another fast and brutal conflict, Bulgaria had lost almost all its gains from the First Balkan War.

The country that gained most from the Balkan Wars was Serbia. The country almost doubled in size and was by far the strongest of all the Balkan nations.

• Serbia became even more determined to be the leader of all the Slav people in the Balkans, including those living in the territory controlled by Austria-Hungary

• Many Serbs living in Bosnia (and Bosnians themselves) were determined that their country should break free of Austro-Hungarian rule and join Serbia

• Austria-Hungary saw the growth of Serbia as a major threat – they had a large, experienced army and were allies of Russia. They felt Serbia needed to be dealt with

• Bulgaria came out of the wars both weaker and intent on getting revenge on Serbia.

By 1907, Europe was divided into two groups: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance. Each side was highly suspicious of the other. For example, the Germans felt that the friendship between Russia (to Germany’s east) and France (to Germany’s west) was an attempt to surround and threaten them. France and Russia, however, felt that the Kaiser’s aim of becoming a world power was a direct threat to them. These fears led to all major European nations building up their armed forces.

An arms race is when rival countries build up their armed forces to become bigger and stronger than the other. In the years before the outbreak of the First World War, the major European powers took part in an arms race, as shown by the amount of money spent on the military. In fact, countries were afraid that war was bound to happen at some point and therefore it was important to be prepared.

• In 1870, Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Italy spent £90 million on the military between them

• By 1914, this spending had quadrupled to almost £400 million

• Germany increased spending the most (by 73%), compared to France’s increase of 10% and Britain’s increase of 13%

• Russia’s spending also increased by more than a third, mainly in response to their defeat by the Japanese in 1905

• Except for Britain, every major European power introduced (or increased) conscription. This is when governments pass laws that force men to join the armed forces.

In the 1800s, Britain had built up a huge navy to protect its trade routes and colonies around the world and, by 1900, was the world’s greatest naval power, but the Kaiser wanted to catch up.

However, in 1901, Germany’s Kaiser announced that he wanted an empire to rival Britain’s. He needed a large navy to achieve this, so began a huge shipbuilding campaign, financed through a series of naval laws. Then, in 1906, the British announced the creation of a new, improved type of warship called the dreadnaught. The new ship was so much faster, stronger and more powerful than any other battleship ever built; so much so that older, German ships were referred to as “funf minuten”. This translated to ‘five minutes’ – the amount of time that Germans thought it would take a dreadnought to sink one of their ships. However, almost immediately, the Germans began work on their own version of the dreadnought (known as the Rheinland). The British responded with an improved version of a dreadnought (the ‘super-dreadnought’). A ‘naval race’ had begun.

Franz Josef and his advisers thought that the Serbian Government had played a role in the murders, and wanted to teach the Serbs a lesson. Conrad von Hötzendorf, a leading politician and army general proposed that Austria-Hungary should declare war on Serbia.

In late July, Austria-Hungary checked with Germany that they had her support. The Kaiser was not best pleased as they were not yet ready for a war; however, they did issue Austria- Hungary with what is known as the Blank Cheque. As a result, Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to Serbia. They demanded that Serbia took full responsibility for the assassinations and get rid of the Black Hand and any other ‘anti-Austrian’ groups. Austria-Hungary insisted that their own police should be allowed into Serbia to make sure that the Serbs were doing all they could to get rid of these terror groups. Serbia was given 48 hours to decide whether to accept the demands. Shortly after the 48-hour deadline was up, the King of Serbia accepted all the demands except for the one that allowed Austro-Hungarian police into his country. He argued that this challenged Serbia’s independence and was worried that it could give Austria-Hungary a foothold in his country.

When Austria-Hungary received Serbia’s response, they broke off all communication and prepared their army for war. On 28th July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and began bombing Serbia’s capital city, Belgrade. On 29th July, when the Russian Tsar heard that Serbia had been attacked, he ordered the Russian Army to mobilise and prepare to go to Serbia’s aid.

On 30th July, the Kaiser sent a message to his Russian cousin, asking him to stop getting his troops ready. There was a flurry of messages between them – but nothing was agreed. A day later, the Tsar refused to stop his preparations for war; as a result, Germany mobilised her army and declared war on Russia. The French prepared for war also.

On 2nd August, Germany began the first part of its war plan. This plan detailed how Germany was to fight both Russia and France in a war, and assumed Russian troops would take longer to mobilise than the French. It involved the invasion of France through Belgium, a swift defeat of France within six weeks, and a redeployment of troops to fight the Russians in the east. Germany sent troops towards the Belgian border, and asked for passage through Belgium to France; Belgium refused.

A day later, however, Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium. This brought Britain into the conflict, as she had signed the Treaty of London in 1839 promising to protect Belgium if she was invaded. The German Kaiser believed Britain wouldn’t stick to this treaty. The British sent a message to the Germans demanding them to call off their invasion of Belgium. After receiving no correspondence from Germany, Britain declared war on Germany on 4th August at 11pm. It was not until the day afterward that France declared war on Germany, at the same time as Austria-Hungary finally declared war on Russia.