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Chapter 14 | Agricultural Sustainability in a Global Market
14.1 Consequences of Agricultural Practices
Altering the Environment
Agricultural landscapes: A landscape resulting from the interactions between farming activities and a location's natural environment
Some agricultural landscapes are long-standing, while others are constantly changing.
Shifting Cultivation
The practice of shifting cultivation involves farming land until the soil is worn, and then leaving it to recover or using it for another purpose.
This form of subsistence agriculture is primarily practices in peripheral and semi-peripheral countries.
South America, Central and West Africa, and Southeast Asia.
This is different from crop rotation in that rotating crops maintains soil fertility; shifting cultivations wears the soil entirely.
In theory, the soil is given time to recover, but if the farmer returns to the land too soon, it can have detrimental effects.
When the land does not have an adequate fallow (uncultivated) period, the result is soil degradation.
Shifting cultivation is commonly practiced on a small scale by indigenous peoples.
Shifting cultivation is one integral component within a complex agroecosystem.
Agroecosystem: An ecosystem modified for agricultural use
Some say that if shifting cultivation is replaced by intensive commercial agriculture, the negative environmental effects will be greater.
Slash and Burn
Slash and burn farming is considered to be a kind of shifting agriculture.
Slash and burn alters landscapes permanently, while other forms of shifting cultivation return regularly to cropland.
This is mainly practiced in areas with tropical wet climates with dense vegetation.
The method involves cutting and burning forests to create fields for crops.
The burn removes weeds, disease, and pests, while the ash layer provides nutrients that fertilize crops.
Within a few years, the soil will lose fertility and weeds return.
When the soil is no longer usable, farmers move on to a new plot of land to repeat the process.
Sometimes the forest regenerates on abandoned fields.
Slash and burn farmers generally live on marginal land in the tropical rain forests of Latin America, Africa, and Asia.
Slash and burn contributes to numerous environmental problems, such as deforestation and soil erosion.
Deforestation: Loss of forest lands
Some argue that only about 7% of agriculture is slash and burn, and it can be sustainable if practiced only by small groups.
Terracing
Terracing: The process of carving parts of a hill or mountainside into small, level growing plots
This method is used in mountainous areas in various climates.
Steps are built into the land and can create paddies for water-intensive crops like rice.
Paddies flood during rainfall and water flows through the terraces without carrying soil down.
This preserves nutrients and leads to the growth of healthy crops.
Although terracing is labor intensive, it is often part of a cultural heritage and everyone in the community participates.
Maintaining the terraces is critical in preventing dangerous runoff and mudslides.
Irrigation
Humans have been using irrigation for millennia, most commonly in areas without dependable precipitation.
Irrigation can affect surface landscapes in many ways.
Arid or semiarid landscapes have been transformed into green fields.
Irrigation supports both small subsistence farms and major commercial agriculture operations.
Reservoir: Artificial lake used to store water
Reservoirs are a common source of irrigation for crops in the U.S.
These artificial lakes are created by building dams across streams and rivers.
Diverting water sources for irrigation can have negative impacts on existing bodies of water.
Water levels can drop, salinity rises, and fish populations suffer.
Increasing agricultural demands threaten river and biodiversity health.
Layers of underground sand, gravel, and rocks that contain and can release a usable amount of water are called aquifers.
Aquifer: Layers of sand, gravel, and rocks that contain and can release a usable amount of water
People tap into aquifers to access fresh water for both agriculture and household uses.
If not replenished by drainage through the soil, groundwater levels can fall or become completely depleted.
The United Nations estimates that within the next few decades, the world will need to increase food production by 60 percent to support its growing population.
This will put pressure on aquifers and other water sources.
If we want to avoid a water crisis, farmers will need to learn to better manage how much water is drawn for irrigation.
Some farmers have already begun using technology that helps them measure and gauge water use, slowing depletion.
Draining Wetlands
Areas of land that are covered by or saturated with water are called wetlands.
Wetland: Area of land that is covered by water or saturated with water
Draining wetlands for farmland was historically acceptable because the lands were viewed as wasteland.
The soil cannot support construction or development, and provides a habitat for pests like mosquitos.
Although possible, draining wetlands for farming results in a significant loss of habitat for fish, waterfowl, and mammals.
Broader environmental issues have also resulted from the loss of wetlands.
They help reduce storm and flood damage
Improve water quality
Trap carbon dioxide
More than half the original wetlands in the United States have been lost, largely due to drainage for agricultural purposes.
Pastoral Nomadism
Like shifting cultivation, pastoral nomadism is an extensive practice and generally a form of subsistence agriculture.
Pastoral nomads are herders who move their animals seasonally for the best grazing.
They tend to be in areas where crop cultivation is difficult or impossible.
Traditionally, pastoral nomadism includes practices of preservation such as rotating razing zones, limiting clustered populations, and conserving for the dry season.
When executed poorly, pastoral nomadism can have serious consequences for the environment.
Overgrazing can cause land degradation.
Desertification: A form of land degradation that occurs when soil deteriorates to a desert-like condition
Herds may favor some plants over others, affecting biodiversity.
Biodiversity: The variety of organisms living in a location
When grazing is concentrated on mountain slopes, soil erosion can result.
As with other traditional agricultural practices, pastoral nomadism has evolved and is under threat in some places.
Environmental Consequences
All agricultural practices have an impact on the environment.
When farmlands and water resources are overused, negative consequences occur.
Pollution
However a field receives its water, water running off farmland has environmental consequences, even for far-off lands.
Runoff may contain chemicals and foreign nutrients, as well as bacteria and disease.
Many things in runoff can harm the ecosystem.
Land Cover Change
Land cover change is how the surface of the land is altered by different land uses.
In terms of agriculture, humans transform Earth’s surface for growing food.
The environmental consequences of land cover change can be difficult to remedy.
For example, terraced farming creates dramatic agricultural landscapes on slopes too steep for other practices.
A frequent problem with terraced farming is groundwater saturation, hindering the land’s ability to absorb more water.
Massive labor is required to properly maintain terraces.
If allowed to deteriorate, soil erosion can be severe and cause catastrophic mudslides.
Deforestation caused by slash and burn agriculture is also a land cover change.
Logging is the biggest driver of deforestation, but poor farming practices are not free of guilt.
Soil Salinization
Irrigation, too, can lead to short-term and long-term environmental damage.
Salinization: The process by which water-soluble salts build up in the soil, which limits the ability of crops to absorb water
Salinization occurs in arid and semiarid regions when water evaporates from the ground more rapidly than it is replenished.
When salt accumulates near roots, plants cannot extract adequate water, reducing crop yield.
Desertification
When water consumption significantly exceeds replenishment, desertification can occur, a permanent form of land degradation.
Poor pastoral nomadism, stationary herds, deforestation, and clearing land can all contribute to desertification.
The areas most vulnerable to desertification are those with low or variable rainfall.
Conservation and Sustainability Efforts
Governments and organizations worldwide are addressing negative effects of agriculture through a variety of efforts.
Many focus on conservation, which involves managing and protecting natural resources to prevent their depletion.
Conservation initiatives often use laws or education to encourage farmers to modify their practices.
Given the diversity of agriculture, ecosystems, and political systems, these plans and policies vary greatly.
Nongovernmental groups also help with with these efforts.
Some efforts have been met with mixed success.
Debt-for-nature swap: Agreement between a bank and a peripheral country in which the bank forgives a portion of the country’s debt in exchange for local investment in conservation measures
Commercial Farming
In areas where commercial agribusiness dominates agriculture, conservation efforts aim to reducing air pollution, using water better, and minimizing toxins seeping into groundwater.
Often, plans involve financial incentives for farmers to incorporate more sustainable practices in their farm operations.
In some parts of the world, small-scale commercial farming is also benefiting from targeted conservation efforts.
Subsistence Farming
Policy makers in areas where subsistence agriculture is common are recognizing the need to preserve soil fertility, prevent erosion, while also increasing yields.
Many of the same sustainable practices applied to commercial farming can also be used in subsistence agriculture.
While commercial farmers can be motivated by greater profits, subsistence farmers are more focused on survival.
They have less financial means and access to information.
Subsistence farmers may need different types of support in terms of education and resources to implement new techniques.
Societal Consequences
Societal consequences of agricultural practices are broad and varied.
Consumers in many countries have altered their diet and lifestyle choices due to recent agricultural innovations.
These individuals are concerned about environmental harm from crops that require large amounts of inputs.
Some are worried about yet unfound effects of GMOs, so they purchase organically grown foods.
Many believe organic goods are better for the environment and their bodies.
Organic farming has a focus on not using artificial chemical inputs.
In many countries, longstanding agriculture and traditions have profoundly influenced both diets and social customs.
The roles of women in farming vary tremendously across regions and agriculture types.
Women who are pastoral nomads have equal responsibility for the animals as men, but are more likely to be in charge of dairy animals or poultry.
In aquaculture, women work both as entrepreneurs and as laborers.
In most countries, women in agriculture face gender discrimination.
With changes in practices and opportunities, the role of women in many types of farming is changing rapidly.
The economic purpose of farms has been changing as well since the Industrial Revolution, having societal consequences.
Because of the shift to commercial agriculture, countries like the U.S. saw a loss of small and mid-sized farms.
The loss of small farms can harm the social and economic fabric of rural communities.
Critics of agribusiness point to these faults.
The rise of monocropping has also had societal consequences in the United States.
Monocropping poses risks to the livelihoods of farmers.
The lack of diversity in crops can cause prices to be turbulent.
The recent trend of consumer diets has been benefitting small and mid-size farms.
These diet choices encourage small farmers to consider switching to organic production.
14.2 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture
Debates over Innovations
Innovations have benefits that include better quality and higher production, but they remain a point of controversy.
One key concern is sustainability.
Farmers must manage the environment in a way that limits damaging pollution.
They must also turn a profit, which may require many inputs.
Some say new innovations are moving towards sustainability, but others are skeptical.
A balance needs to be reached between environmentally sustainable and economically effective.
Biotechnology and GMOs
The use of genetic modification (GM) is not new, farmers have been improving plants through selective breeding for thousands of years.
Biotechnology: The science of altering living organisms, often through genetic manipulation, to create new products for specific purposes, such as crops that resist certain pests
Supporters argue that the revolution in biotechnology can solve world hunger problems.
It can cause increased yields, resistance to threats, and improved nutrition.
But some raise the question: How much genetic modification is too much?
One potential benefit of genetic engineering is a reduction in the cost of food production.
Those who question the advantages of biotechnology feel its environmental impacts have not been thoroughly investigated.
The long-term effects of genetic alterations are still unknown.
Foods modified through genetic modification/engineering have been banned in much of Europe because of uncertainty around their safety.
Another debate on modern agriculture is about biodiversity, and whether biotechnology helps or harms the diversity of species.
Agricultural biodiversity: The variety and variability of plants, animals, and microorganisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture
Agricultural biodiversity is integral to environmentally sustainable agriculture.
It enables agriculture to achieve productivity gains, improve sustainability, and manage changing conditions.
Critics claim that genetic engineering poses a threat to agricultural biodiversity.
Innovations may actually make problems worse.
When genetic measures are taken to make crops resistant to weeds, for example, weeds eventually adapt.
The weeds, temporarily quelled, adapt and come back after some time.
This then requires even more action.
Another risk is that genetically modified crops may transfer genetic material into unmodified plants.
When giving a herbicide-resistant gene to crops, that gene may spread to the weeds themselves.
The weeds are then herbicide-resistant themselves and a new problem has been made.
Genetically modified organisms may escape and threaten surrounding biodiversity by becoming invasive and crowding out wild species.
Soil fertility is another concern.
Generally, soil fertility has decreased with the intensification of food production.
The land’s productivity is lessened or threatened as a result.
This leads to farmers applying more synthetic fertilizers to keep up with the growing demand.
Supporters and opponents also disagree on the use of GE crops to conserve water.
There are similar concerns in that there may be unintended biological effects on local plant communities.
Economically, the cost of using new technologies may put many farmers in tremendous debt.
If their yield isn’t enough or if prices drop too much, they may never be able to pay the debts off.
Due to biotechnology’s high cost, its use is often limited to agribusinesses.
Aquaculture
Aquaculture is an innovative branch of agriculture that has demonstrated advantages in many ways.
This type of fish farming needs less space and care and represents one of the fastest growing food production sectors.
This is an alternative to natural fisheries and can provide large and consistent amounts of fish.
It has helped meet global demands and created jobs.
Algae is also being used as a possible energy alternative to fossil fuels.
Aquaculture offers environmental benefits as well.
The farming of shellfish, which filter water in their feeding process, can increase water quality.
Concerns about aquaculture include pollution from used chemicals and an excess in fish waste.
Aquaculturalists use antibiotics on their fish which harm the ecosystem.
Native gene pools may also be compromised if farmed fish and native fish breed.
Food Choice
Food preference and dietary shift are important motivators of changes in contemporary agriculture.
People may choose food for its health benefits, sustainability, or to support independent farmers.
Participants in food choice movements are enthusiastic about their benefits, but there is debate over the real impact.
Local Food Movements
In the US, some consumers are employing new ways to acquire fresh food.
Urban farming, for example, converts vacant areas into spaces for growing produce.
Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) involves consumers purchasing shared in the output of a local farm.
During the growing season they receive a weekly box of produce from the farm.
In return, farmers who operate CSAs receive guaranteed income.
There are drawbacks: Not all CSAs are profitable, and urban farms typically do not reach large populations.
Local food movements aim to connect food producers and consumers in the same region.
These can be farmers markets or farm-to-table restaurants.
Organic Farming
Organic farming has seen a rise in popularity in some areas, in part as a response to concerns about chemical inputs and GMOs.
These practices are more expensive, but consumers have proven willing to spend extra for organic food.
Instead of using artificial inputs, organic farmers use natural fertilizers and crop rotation techniques.
Organic farmers attempt to reduce or eliminate external agricultural inputs and strive for sustainability.
Not everyone agrees that avoiding GMOs by buying organic or through other means is a healthier option.
Many experts insist that modified foods pose no danger to consumers.
Fair Trade and Value-Added Crops
Another type of production driven by consumer choice is fair trade.
In the interest of supporting sustainability and quality of life for farmers, many are willing to pay more.
Food choice often to value-added specialty crops: Organic or other crops that are modified from their original state to a more valuable one.
Coffee, tea, and chocolate are all value-added crops.
As food production has become more efficient, the possibilities of value-added agriculture have increased.
Being able to meet consumer demands can lead to more profit, but that comes at a cost.
Consumer demands may entice farmers to cultivate value-added crops, but the farmers must also invest more for them.
Dietary Shifts
Broader global trends in diets may weight the heaviest on agriculture.
The global demand for all meats is growing, for example, so need for grain to feed livestock is rising.
A growing international appetite for processed food products also impacts growers’ choices of crops.
Agriculture and Diet
Food choices affect agriculture, but the reverse is also true.
Contemporary agricultural practices have changed diets around the world.
Increased innovation has expanded the amount of foods available to people globally.
14.3 Feeding the World
Food Insecurity
Food security: Reliable access to safe and nutritious food that can support an active and healthy lifestyle
Food insecurity: The disruption of food intake or eating patterns because of poor access to food
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that in 2018, about 26% of the population experienced at least moderate food insecurity.
FAO also states that more than 820 million people do not have access to enough food to lead a healthy, active life.
The planet does produce enough food to feed everyone, but a global food supply does not solve regional problems.
Global Food Insecurity
It has been found that much food insecurity is the result of distribution issues and economic decisions.
Another serious threat to Earth’s ability to continue producing sufficient food is adverse weather, caused or intensified by climate change.
More than 80 percent of food-insecure people in the world live in areas susceptible to such extreme weather events.
Instability and chronic poverty also contribute to food insecurity.
The loss of agricultural land to urban areas is another threat to food production.
Suburbanization: The shifting of population away from cities into surrounding suburbs
The impact of urban growth on agriculture has been highly debated.
Some argue it is negative, citing the reduction of arable land and the declining ratio of food producers to food consumers.
Others claims that because of food globalization, urban growth has little impact on ability to meet food demands.
Food Issues in the United States
Like other countries, the United States is losing farmland to urban development.
As suburbs grow, more land goes to that purpose and is taken from small-scale family farms.
In many low-income areas of the United States food insecurity is an ongoing concern.
Poverty and food insecurity are closely linked, but are not always perfectly connected.
The cost of living compared to wages earned and other factors, such as medical expenses, can affect food security.
Hunger and Conflict
About 60% of the world’s hungry live in countries affected by war.
Conflict is one of the key factors affecting food security and nutrition.
In some instances, warring parties have used food as a weapon.
They have deliberately denied it for people associated with the opposition.
In many cases, food distribution is inadequate because political systems are flawed.
People living in areas torn by fighting have few food options.
Humanitarian workers attempting to provide food relief often face violence themselves.
Economic Impacts on Food Production
One of the factors that contributes to food insecurity is poor distribution.
Effective distribution systems connect producers to consumers and allocate food to meet needs.
There are challenges in deciding on distribution, who makes those decisions, and the employed methods.
Complex social and economic factors often prevent consumers who need food most from getting it.
Storage and Transportation Issues
Farms, food-processing, and markets are often considerable distances from one another.
In some places, however, supply chains are much shorter, existing within a single country or region.
Even short supply chains can break down due to poor storage, processing, transportation, or infrastructure.
Poor infrastructure in many peripheral countries means that food often cannot be transported to those that need it.
The FAO calculates that 25% of the world’s calories are lost or wasted.
By improving rural infrastructure, governments can strengthen the ability to reduce waste and increase food access.
Economy of Scale
Economy of scale: The reduced cost of producing food items as the quantity of production increases
If fixed costs are spread over many units of production, the return on investment is greater because the fixed costs remain the same.
The concept shows that large-scale farming is more efficient.
The average cost of production decreased as the farm size increases.
Economy of scale offers a good way to think about how to best use resources to meet needs.
Almost every aspect of modern agriculture favors large-scale farming because as quantity of units produced increases, cost per unit goes down.
Economy of scale also indirectly affects the way food is distributed.
To make the best use of technology, larger farms are less diverse as farmers focus on one or two crops.
These farms also have access to more far-reaching distribution networks.
Small farms may struggle more when prices are low due to lower yields and less connections.
Many small-scale farmers choose to grow specialty crops in the hopes that the higher prices will cover costs and produce profit.
Government Policies
In the United States, the rise of large-scale farming has led to corporate landholders controlling most of the country’s arable land.
In 2017, the USDA reported that the largest farms account for less than one percent of all farms but 35% of all sales.
The largest commercial farms receive the majority of the ~$20 billion in annual farm subsidies.
Such policies have the power to distort decisions made by farm businesses by encouraging overproduction and discouraging diversification.
Farmers often feel they must choose to grow the crops that are the most cost-effective.
Farms may also shift to produce profit-making crops instead of those that will limit food insecurity.
Fighting the Problem
In many core economies, conscious diets are becoming popular as a way to help solve the hunger crisis.
Some consumers made dietary choices with both global and personal consequences in mind.
A large-scale shift to less meat-intensive diets could have considerable impact on the availability of food.
Changing diets in wealthier countries has the potential to free up more croplands to grow food.
The next step is creating infrastructure to ensure that the food reaches those who need it.
Much relies on governments, but consumers and their purchasing power can also help transform the global food system.
14.4 Women in Agriculture
A Variety of Roles
Women produce more than 50% of the world’s food and make up 43% of the agricultural labor force.
Most working women in peripheral countries labor for agriculture, and a third of US farmers are female.
Women’s roles in agriculture vary widely across the world.
As agriculture changes because of technology, science, and economic or social pressures, so too do the role of women.
In peripheral countries, women are largely limited to participation in subsistence agriculture.
Opportunities to transition to commercial farming can be limited by gender bias.
The most difficult gendered challenge that women face is the lack of land rights.
Only 10 to 20 percent of landholders in peripheral countries are women.
If a female farmers does not own the land she works, she doesn’t have the legal backing to make decisions about it.
In some areas, legal rights exist on paper but are disregarded in practice.
Women in agriculture also face obstacles when attempting to conduct the business of farming.
In some countries, even unspoken roles can be rigid and keep women from taking their crops to market.
Some countries block women from taking out loans, which means they cannot invest in inputs.
In many places, women in agriculture experience difficult working conditions and a poor quality of life.
Family farms are central to food security, but they are also the main institutions where women work unpaid and unrecognized.
The United States provides examples of the varied and changing roles women play in agriculture.
In 2017, the USDA reported that 36% of the country’s producers involved in decision-making were female.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, women farmers, ranchers, and managers exceeded the earnings of their male counterparts in the same year.
Female ranchers are also leading the way in practicing sustainable ranching.
While American female farmers may not face the same hardships as foreign women, obstacles still exist to their equal participation in agriculture.
Alongside changing roles in food production and distribution, women’s roles in food consumption have also changed.
Traditionally, women cooked for the household. This is still true today, but as more women enter the workforce, the tend to cook regularly less.
Families have begun eating out more and their dietary choices have changed because of this trend.
Empowering Rural Women
In farming, empowerment can mean having the ability to make decisions about the farm, control of finances, or other liberties.
Empowering women in the agricultural sector has the potential to bring significant benefits to many people and groups.
Children will receive better nutrition and education when their mother’s incomes increase.
Communities will benefit when women can spend money on schooling and other resources.
Empowering female farmers may help improve food security for millions.
According to the FAO, if rural women had the same access to technology as men, agricultural productivity would increase by 20 to 30 percent.