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Biomolecules - any of numerous substances that are produced by cells and living organisms.

Macromolecules - which are large and with greater molecular weight. It refers to the building blocks of all cells.

Micromolecules - refers to a molecule of relatively small size and low molecular weight

MACROMOLECULES	MICROMOLECULES
Carbohydrate	Simple Sugar (Glucose)
Lipids	Fatty acids and glycerol.
Proteins	Amino Acids
Nucleic Acid	Nucleotides

4 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, AND NUCLEIC ACID

1. CARBOHYDRATES - are among the most abundant biochemical in the world. It is composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. “Carbon + water”. It is the main source of energy.

TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES

-Monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide.

‘Carbo’ - refers to the element carbon and, ‘Hydrate’ = water = H2O

MONOSACCHARIDE - the simplest form of carbohydrate with the chemical formula of C6H12O6. It comes from the Greek word “monos”: single, and “saccar”: (sugar). It contains only 1 sugar unit.

GLUCOSE	FRUCTOSE/LEVULOSE	GALACTOSE/ALDOHEXOSE
A.K.A “Dextrose or Grape sugar”	Considered *the sweetest among sugar.*	Obtained from milk
provides energy to fuel all cellular processes.	Found in fruits, honey, and corn syrups.	It can help to identify blood type,
A.K.A “blood sugar”	Converted to glucose in the liver	It is less than half as sweet as glucose

DISACCHARIDES - Monosaccharides formed together with the formula C12H22011. Disaccharides should be broken down into simple sugar through the process of hydrolysis.

SUCROSE *(Glucose + Fructose)*	LACTOSE *(Glucose + Galactose)*	MALTOSE *(2 Glucose)*
It is commonly known as *‘table sugar*’ and is considered an excellent ‘natural preservative.	Found in *milk and milk products*. It is responsible for digesting this sugar.	Found in ‘BEER’. It provides energy to a germinating seed.

POLYSACCHARIDE - made up of repeating units of sugar joined together by glycosidic bonds and HYDROGEN BONDS. It serves as the storage of energy.

CELLULOSE	CHITIN	STARCH	GLYCOGEN
The most abundant organic molecule on earth provides support to cell walls.	Principal components of *exoskeletons of animals like mollusks and crustaceans.*	A storage polysaccharide derived from potatoes, wheat, bread, pasta, and other bread products.	Usually *referred to as animal starch* is *stored in the liver and muscle.*
It keeps our digestive tract healthy but it doesn’t serve as a nutrient.	It is used in surgical threads, binders in dyes and fabrics, and adhesives.	Hydrolysis is the major chemical reaction in the digestion of starchy foods.

HIGH BLOOD SUGAR (HYPERGLYCEMIA)	LOW BLOOD SUGAR (HYPOGLYCEMIA)
- Increased thirst- Frequent urination- Fatigue- Nausea and vomiting- Shortness of breathing- Stomach pain- Fruity breath odor- A very dry mouth- Rapid heartbeat	- Shakiness/nervousness- Anxiety- Fatigue- Weakness- Sweating- Hunger- Nausea- Dizziness/ lightheadedness- Difficulty speaking- Confusion

2. LIPIDS - Glycerol and Fatty acids

These storage lipids accumulate when cells are provided with an excess of nutrients.
OILS (LIQUID) and FATS (SEMI-SOLID) are 2 types of neutral lipids.
OILS are usually found in the seeds of plants while fats are produced by animals.

FATS

Subgroups of lipids are composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids, hence called “TRIGLYERIDE”.
Fats are deposited in the adipose tissue and are sources of energy.
Fats surrounding internal organs act as cushions protecting them from shocks and injuries.
They also serve as insulators protecting animals from extreme cold.

SATURATED FATS	UNSATURATED FATS
Type of fats that have a predominantly single bond between molecules in the fatty acid chain.	Type of fat that have double bonds between molecules of the fatty acid chain.
Solids at room temperature.	Liquids at room temperature.
LARD, BUTTER, AND MARGARINE.	LINOLEIC, LINOLENIC, AND ARACHIDONIC
Too much-saturated fat can cause cholesterol to build up in your arteries (blood vessels). arteriosclerosis	Diets lacking unsaturated fatty acids may lead to impaired growth and reproduction and skin disorders such as dermatitis and eczema.
	Oils came from plants like corn oil and palm oil

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

Are a SUBGROUP of lipids and are a major structural component of all cell membranes.
They are made up of glycerol, fatty acids, and a phosphate group.

WAXES

A simple lipid consisting of long-chain alcohol and a fatty acid joined by Esther. They are found as coating of leaves and stem to prevent excessive loss of water in plants.
They also serve as protection from disease and insects.
In insects, waxes cover their body surface to restrict the movement of water across the cuticle to prevent the body from drying.

STEROIDS

CHOLESTEROL - is an essential component of animal cell membranes with the following functions.

-REGULATES membrane fluidity

-Intracellular transport, endocytosis, cell signaling, and nerve conduction.

-In the liver, CHOLESTEROL is converted to bile which is stored in the gallbladder.

CAUSES OF HIGH CHOLESTEROL

Foods
Genetics (familial hypercholesterolemia)
Regular smoker
Physical inactive
Some medications
Other chronic diseases

SEX HORMONES	ERGOSTEROL	ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONE
Female SH 1. Progesterone 2. Estrogen	is converted to Vitamin D by ultraviolet radiation.	Aldosterone - regulates the reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions in the kidney tubules.
Male1. Testosterone		Cortisol - which increases glucose and glycogen concentrations in the body.

3. PROTEIN

These are large, complex molecules composed of many smaller molecules called AMINO ACIDS.
There are 20 amino acids that have the same amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH), but different side chain groups (represented by R).
All proteins have a unique structure that determines their unique function.
The peptide bond is formed between the amino acid and the carboxyl group of another amino acid.

AMINO ACID

NON - ESSENTIAL	ESSENTIAL
Alanine, Arginine, Asparagine, Aspartate, Cystine, Glutamic, Glycine, Ornithine, Proline, Serine, and Tyrosine	Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, and Valine

The protein we consume can be altered and changed but can never return to its initial form. This is called “denaturation”. This can be seen when you add heat to an egg (it changes from a runny fluid to a solid mass). The shapes of the protein molecules in these foods have changed.

FACTORS THAT CAUSE DENATURATION.

-Heat, acids, bases, Alcohol

PROTEIN IN THE BODY consists of 10% Skin, 20% Bone, 50% Muscle, and 20% other including blood, glands, and nerve tissue.

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN

FUNCTION	EXAMPLE
Movement	Actin and myosin, are necessary for the contraction of muscle fibers.
Structure	- Collagen, the most abundant protein in the human body, forms bones, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage - Keratin forms hair, nails, horns, feathers, and scales.
Transport	Hemoglobin in red blood cells carries oxygen through the bloodstream
Nutrition	Casein in milk stores amino acids for use by some newborn animals.
Defense	Antibodies help animals fight off an invasion by viruses and bacterias.
Regulation	Enzymes help control chemical reactions in the body

THE FUNCTION OF PROTEIN

BUILD AND MAINTAIN TISSUE
MAKE IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS
REGULATE MINERAL AND FLUID BALANCE
MAINTAIN ACID-BASE BALANCE
CARRY VITAL SUBSTANCES
PROVIDE ENERGY

ENZYMES - Most of the proteins in living cells are enzymes.

These enzymes control the rates of many chemical reactions to bring about certain metabolic processes
DENATURATION - changing of chain structure by breaking the peptide bonds that are brought about by heat, pressure, acidity, etc.
- Disturbance on 1 or few of the enzymes may result in illness/death

Sucrase = sucrose:: Maltose = Maltase

Enzymes are capable of acting only on specific substances or reactions.
The activities of enzymes are influenced or inhibited by various factors such as temperature, pH concentration of the enzyme and substrate, and the collision or contract between the molecules of the enzyme and substrate.

SOME OF THE ENZYMES OF THE BODY

Axido-reductases - bring about oxidation-reduction reactions.
Hydrolases - influence hydrolytic reactions (Hydrolysis).
Proteinase - breaks down protein into amino acids.
Nuclease - breaks down nucleic acid into nucleotides
Lipase - breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
Amylase - breaks down starch into simple sugars.

METABOLIC PATHWAY

It is a sequence of chemical reactions occurring in a cell. A single enzyme-catalyzed reaction may be one of the multiple reactions in a metabolic pathway.
COFACTORS - a chemical substance that assists the enzymes. Such as iron. manganese, and zinc.
COENZYMES - organic molecules, acting as cofactors. (NAD and FAD)
Substrate - a molecule acted upon by an enzyme. A substance is loaded into the active site of the enzyme, or the place that allows weak bonds to be formed between the 2 molecules.

2 TYPES OF METABOLIC PATHWAYS

Catabolic Pathways (CATABOLISM) - involved in the breakdown or digestion of large complex molecules.
Anabolic Pathways (ANABOLISM) - involve the synthesis of larger molecules, generally by joining smaller molecules together.

Anabolism = Building: Catabolism = Deconstruction

GROUP OF ORGANISMS BASED ON MECHANISM OF EXTRACTING ENERGY

Autotrophic (green plants) - transform C02 and H2O into organic molecules through photosynthesis.
Heterotrophic (animals) - obtain energy from different foodstuffs.

a. HOLOZOIC (digestion)

b. SAPHROPYTIC or PARASITIC

Structure of a protein

4. NUCLEIC ACID

Nucleic acid is complex macromolecule that store information that determine the type and structure of all specific proteins found in an organism’s body.
Nucleic acids are polymers made up of monomers called nucleotide.

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L1: (BOIMOLECULES) BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES