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Key areas of research

The Child as a Moral Philosopher

This study was done by Kohlberg, who wanted to explore moral development over time and was unimpressed by psychotherapist and behaviourist theories.

Methodology

Kohlberg used interviews to create qualitative data. It was also longitudinal and involved cross-cultural comparisons.
The study used 75 American boys aged 10-16 and then again between ages 22-28.
People from the UK, Canada, Taiwan, Mexico and Turkey were also studied.

Procedure

There was nine hypotheticals, including the Heinz dilemma.
Three dilemmas were given, and they were given a ten or more open ended questions about the dilemmas in an unstructured interview.
Common themes were identified, and boys were reinterviewed every three years.

Findings

The findings were used to create the three stages of development:

Preconventional Level: Children accept rules and judge good or bad via consequences, an action that leads to a punish is bad and etc.	Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation.	This ignores intentions behind punishments and on obeying rules to avoid punishments.
	Stage 2: The instrumental purpose orientation.	Children view ‘right’ actions as those that benefit them.
Conventional Level: Children still conform to social rules, but due to maintaining the current social order.	Stage 3: Interpersonal cooperation.	Children seek validation through their actions, and do what is right as defined by others.
	Stage 4: Social-order maintaining orientation.	Children believe every has a duty to follow the rules in order to maintain a functional society.
Post-conventional Level: Children no longer look for other’s ideas and defines their own morality using their own moral principles.	Stage 5: Social contract orientation.	Laws are seen as flexible and upheld only if they follow the interests and benefits of others. If not, they should be changed.
	Stage 6: Universal ethical principles orientation.	Morality is defined by self-decided abstract moral principles, which a person acts upon even if they are not in accordance with the law.

Conclusions

He concluded the stages were universal, and stages could not be skipped. However, people can stop at any age.
These developments result in a more moral and logical form of understanding.
Discussions between children of different levels will allow them to develop, with the kid at the lower level moving forward a stage.
Middle class children developed faster than poorer children.
Cross-cultural research found that those in Mexico and Taiwan developed slower, and religion had no impact on moral development.

Evaluation

Sampling:
- Only males were used in Kohlberg’s study.
- Gilligan found evidence that women focus on personal relationships over justice.
- Many see this as an expansion on Kohlberg over an alternative.
External validity:
- Gilligan also criticised Kohlberg’s dilemmas for not being realistic, and also being too complex for young children to understand.
Social desirability bias:
- Children may have answered with answers they thought sounded better, using an idealistic view.
- While it is supported that those with reason more maturely are inclined to more mature behaviour.
  - A study found that 70% of children at the preconventional stage would cheat, while only 15% of college students at the post-conventional stage.
- Burton, however, claimed that behaviour is more influenced by outside factors, such as punishment, than moral principles.

Behaviour study of obedience

This study was done by Milgram, who wanted to investigate whether the Nazi defense of genocidal acts of ‘I was ordered to do it‘ was justified.

Methodology

The study was posted in a newspaper and used volunteer sampling. They were offered $4.50 for their participation.
There was 40 men between the ages of 20-50 years old.

Procedures

Participants were asked to arrive at a certain time, and drew straws with a confederate to decide who got each role, between the teacher and the learner.
- This was rigged for the participant to become the teacher, and the confederate the learner.
The learner was asked to memorise pairs of words, and the teacher would quiz them by asking for one word.
For every wrong answer, the teacher gave an electric shock which increased with every wrong answer.
If the teacher attempted to withdraw, four prods could be used at different levels:
- ‘Please continue.‘
- ‘The experiment requires you continue.‘
- ‘It is absolutely essential you continue.‘
- ‘You have no choice but to continue.‘
This started at 15v and the maximum was 450v.

Results

All participants went to at least 300v.
65% went to the highest level of volts.

Conclusions

He concluded the situation, such as the formality of the prods, the fact they agreed to participate, the payments or the fact they volunteered that led them to obey.
Milgram used this to create Milgram’s agency theory:
- Autonomous State - People direct their own actions and take responsibility for the result of those actions.
- Agentic state - People allow others to direct their actions, and place the responsibility on those who commanded them. They act as agents to another will. To enter this state, the agent must be seen as qualified, an authority and having the ability to accept this responsibility.

Evaluation

Experimental realism:
- Ornell and Holland claimed the study lacked experimental realism, so people may have guessed the electric shocks were not actually being administered.
Sampling:
- Volunteer sampling was used, and those who volunteer usually have a similar personality.
- Unrepresentative, they were all male.
Informed consent:
- Baumrind said informed consent was prevented as they were not told the true aims of the study.
- They were also coerced due to the financial incentive.
Right to withdraw:
- The prods and financial incentive may have caused people to believe they couldn’t withdraw.
- Milgram argued prods were necessary for studies on obedience.
Psychological harm:
- Participants were observed shaking, sweating, stuttering and three even experienced uncontrollable seizures, which disputes Ornell and Holland’s theory they were aware the experiment was fake.
- A debrief did occur afterwards, and Milgram reported this decreased the short term psychological effects.
- A year later a follow-up interview was conducted, in which 83.7% said they were glad to have participated, while 1.3% said they wish they didn’t.
Deception:
- They believed the selection of who was learner and teacher was random, and that they were actually administering electric shocks.
Confidentiality:
- Each participant had a pseudonym given to them to protect their identity.
- However, audio clips were taken of participants and used as evidence.

Home

2.1b: Research methods experiments

Key areas of research

The Child as a Moral Philosopher

This study was done by Kohlberg, who wanted to explore moral development over time and was unimpressed by psychotherapist and behaviourist theories.

Methodology

Kohlberg used interviews to create qualitative data. It was also longitudinal and involved cross-cultural comparisons.
The study used 75 American boys aged 10-16 and then again between ages 22-28.
People from the UK, Canada, Taiwan, Mexico and Turkey were also studied.

Procedure

There was nine hypotheticals, including the Heinz dilemma.
Three dilemmas were given, and they were given a ten or more open ended questions about the dilemmas in an unstructured interview.
Common themes were identified, and boys were reinterviewed every three years.

Findings

The findings were used to create the three stages of development:

Preconventional Level: Children accept rules and judge good or bad via consequences, an action that leads to a punish is bad and etc.	Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation.	This ignores intentions behind punishments and on obeying rules to avoid punishments.
	Stage 2: The instrumental purpose orientation.	Children view ‘right’ actions as those that benefit them.
Conventional Level: Children still conform to social rules, but due to maintaining the current social order.	Stage 3: Interpersonal cooperation.	Children seek validation through their actions, and do what is right as defined by others.
	Stage 4: Social-order maintaining orientation.	Children believe every has a duty to follow the rules in order to maintain a functional society.
Post-conventional Level: Children no longer look for other’s ideas and defines their own morality using their own moral principles.	Stage 5: Social contract orientation.	Laws are seen as flexible and upheld only if they follow the interests and benefits of others. If not, they should be changed.
	Stage 6: Universal ethical principles orientation.	Morality is defined by self-decided abstract moral principles, which a person acts upon even if they are not in accordance with the law.

Conclusions

He concluded the stages were universal, and stages could not be skipped. However, people can stop at any age.
These developments result in a more moral and logical form of understanding.
Discussions between children of different levels will allow them to develop, with the kid at the lower level moving forward a stage.
Middle class children developed faster than poorer children.
Cross-cultural research found that those in Mexico and Taiwan developed slower, and religion had no impact on moral development.

Evaluation

Sampling:
- Only males were used in Kohlberg’s study.
- Gilligan found evidence that women focus on personal relationships over justice.
- Many see this as an expansion on Kohlberg over an alternative.
External validity:
- Gilligan also criticised Kohlberg’s dilemmas for not being realistic, and also being too complex for young children to understand.
Social desirability bias:
- Children may have answered with answers they thought sounded better, using an idealistic view.
- While it is supported that those with reason more maturely are inclined to more mature behaviour.
  - A study found that 70% of children at the preconventional stage would cheat, while only 15% of college students at the post-conventional stage.
- Burton, however, claimed that behaviour is more influenced by outside factors, such as punishment, than moral principles.

Behaviour study of obedience

This study was done by Milgram, who wanted to investigate whether the Nazi defense of genocidal acts of ‘I was ordered to do it‘ was justified.

Methodology

The study was posted in a newspaper and used volunteer sampling. They were offered $4.50 for their participation.
There was 40 men between the ages of 20-50 years old.

Procedures

Participants were asked to arrive at a certain time, and drew straws with a confederate to decide who got each role, between the teacher and the learner.
- This was rigged for the participant to become the teacher, and the confederate the learner.
The learner was asked to memorise pairs of words, and the teacher would quiz them by asking for one word.
For every wrong answer, the teacher gave an electric shock which increased with every wrong answer.
If the teacher attempted to withdraw, four prods could be used at different levels:
- ‘Please continue.‘
- ‘The experiment requires you continue.‘
- ‘It is absolutely essential you continue.‘
- ‘You have no choice but to continue.‘
This started at 15v and the maximum was 450v.

Results

All participants went to at least 300v.
65% went to the highest level of volts.

Conclusions

He concluded the situation, such as the formality of the prods, the fact they agreed to participate, the payments or the fact they volunteered that led them to obey.
Milgram used this to create Milgram’s agency theory:
- Autonomous State - People direct their own actions and take responsibility for the result of those actions.
- Agentic state - People allow others to direct their actions, and place the responsibility on those who commanded them. They act as agents to another will. To enter this state, the agent must be seen as qualified, an authority and having the ability to accept this responsibility.

Evaluation

Experimental realism:
- Ornell and Holland claimed the study lacked experimental realism, so people may have guessed the electric shocks were not actually being administered.
Sampling:
- Volunteer sampling was used, and those who volunteer usually have a similar personality.
- Unrepresentative, they were all male.
Informed consent:
- Baumrind said informed consent was prevented as they were not told the true aims of the study.
- They were also coerced due to the financial incentive.
Right to withdraw:
- The prods and financial incentive may have caused people to believe they couldn’t withdraw.
- Milgram argued prods were necessary for studies on obedience.
Psychological harm:
- Participants were observed shaking, sweating, stuttering and three even experienced uncontrollable seizures, which disputes Ornell and Holland’s theory they were aware the experiment was fake.
- A debrief did occur afterwards, and Milgram reported this decreased the short term psychological effects.
- A year later a follow-up interview was conducted, in which 83.7% said they were glad to have participated, while 1.3% said they wish they didn’t.
Deception:
- They believed the selection of who was learner and teacher was random, and that they were actually administering electric shocks.
Confidentiality:
- Each participant had a pseudonym given to them to protect their identity.
- However, audio clips were taken of participants and used as evidence.