8.1 The Basic Units of Cognition: Mental Imagery, Concepts, and Language

• Cognition: Process of thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge.

  Processing Mental Representation

• Experimental processing: Thought that is passive, effortless, and automatic.

• Reflective processing: Thought that is active effortful, and controlled.

  Mental Imagery

• Mental images: Mental picture or visual depiction used in memory and thinking.

  Characteristics of Mental Imagery

  1. Not flat like photographs

  2. Approximate what is true in the “real world”

  3. Held in short-term, part of visuospatial sketch pod

• Concept: Mental category for classifying things based on common features or properties.

  • Help us identify important features of the things we encounter in the world.

• Concept Formation: Process of classifying information into meaningful categories

  • Based on experience with positive and negative instances.

  • Ongoing processing of assimilation

• Prototype: An ideal model used as a prime example of a particular concept.

• Faulty Concepts: Do not always accurately reflect reality

  • Social stereotypes

  • All-or-nothing thinking

  Language

• Language: Words or symbols, and rules for combining them, that are used for thinking and communication.

• Phonemes: Basic speech sounds of a language.

• Morphemes: Smallest meaningful units in a language, such as syllables or words.

• Grammar: A set of rules for combining language units into meaningful speech or writing

• Syntax: Rules for ordering words when forming sentences.

  Semantics

• Transformation rules: Rules by which a simple declarative sentence may be changed to other choices or forms (past tense, passive voice, and so forth).

• Semantics: The study of meanings in words and language.

• Denotative meaning: The exact, dictionary definition of a word or concept; its objective meaning.

• Connotative meaning: The subjective, personal, or emotional meaning of a word or concept.

  Alternative Language

• Gestural Language

• ASL: Spatial grammar, syntax, semantics

• Animal language: cries, gestures, mating calls

  Human Diversity and Language

• Linguistic relativity hypothesis: The idea that the words we use not only reflect our thoughts but can shape them as well.

• Bilingualism: The ability to speak two languages.

  • Not associated directly with executive functions or other cognitive abilities

• Subtractive Bilingualism: Eliminating a second language

• Additive Bilingualism: Learning a second language

  8.2 Problem Solving

  Methods of Problem Solving

  Algorithms

• Algorithmic solution: A problem solution achieved by following a series of step-by-step rules.

• Logical thought: Drawing conclusions on the basis of formal principles of reasoning.

• Inductive thought: Thinking in which a general rule or principle is gathered from a series of specific examples; for instance, inferring the laws of gravity by observing many falling objects.

• Deductive thought: Thought that applies a general set of rules to specific situations; for example, using the laws of gravity to predict the behavior of a single falling object.

  Understand

• Understanding (in problem solving): A deeper comprehension of the nature of a problem.

• General solution: A solution that correctly states the requirements for success, but not in enough detail for further action.

• Functional solution: A detailed, practical, and workable solution.

  Heuristics

• Heuristic: Shortcut or rule of thumb for finding a solution to a problem.

• Random Search Strategy: Trying possible solutions to a problem in a more or less random over.

• Does not guarantee solutions

  Insight

• Insight: A sudden mental reorganization of a problem that makes the solution obvious.

  • Based on reorganization of a problem

    • Selective Encoding: Selecting information that is relevant to a problem

    • Selective Combination: Bringing together seemingly unrelated bits of useful information

    • Selective Comparison: Ability to compare new problems with old information

• Fixation (in problem solving): The tendency to repeat wrong solutions or faulty responses, especially as a result of becoming blind to alternatives.

• Functional fixedness: Tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use.

  • Can avoid fixations by being flexible in categorizing the world

  Problem Solving of Experts vs. Novices

• Experts generate solutions much quicker than movies

  • Know more about a specific topic

  8.3 Intuition, Decision-Making, and Cognitive Biases

• Intuition: Quick, impulsive thought that does not use formal logic or clear reasoning.

  • Thin-slicing: Quickly making sense of thin slivers of experiences

  • Sometimes intuitive judgments are as accurate as more reflective, rational considerations.

  • First impressions are not always right.

  Errors and Biases in Intuition and Decision Making

• Hot cognition: Thinking that is driven by emotions

• Automatic processing: Sometimes lead to irrational choices

• Kahneman and Tversky’s behavioral economics: Developed four common errors in decision-making: Framing, availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, and base rate

• Behavioral economics: A branch of economics that applies psychology to the study of economic decision-making.

• Framing: In thought, the terms in which a problem is stated or the way that it is structured.

• Availability heuristic: Mental shortcut that relies on how quickly examples come to mind when evaluating a topic or making a decision.

  • When many instances of an event come to mind, we assume it must occur often and is likely.

• Representativeness heuristic: Mental shortcut of judging if something belongs in a given class based on similarity to other members.

• Base rate: The basic rate at which an event occurs over time; the basic probability of an event.

• Choice overload: Difficulty making a decision in the face of many alternatives.

  8.4 Creative Thinking

  The Nature of Creativity

• Creativity: Ability to combine mental elements in new and useful ways.

• Convergent thinking: Thinking directed toward discovery of a single established correct answer.

• Divergent thinking: Many possibilities are developed from one starting point:

  • Intuitive and associative

  • Fluency: The total number of suggestions you can make

  • Flexibility: The number of times you shift between potential uses

  • Originality: How novel or unusual your ideas are

  • Must be high quality and relevant to solving the original problem

• Fluency: In tests of creativity, fluency refers to the total number of solutions produced.

• Flexibility: In tests of creativity, flexibility is indicated by how many different types of solutions are produced.

• Originality: In tests of creativity: Originality refers to how novel or unusual solutions are.

  Stages of Creative Thought

  Five Stages Occur in Creative Problem Solving

  1. Orientation: Defining the problems and important dimensions

  2. Preparation: Gather information on the specific problem

  3. Incubation: Problem-solving on a subconscious level

  4. Illumination: Rapid insight (lightbulb moment)

  5. Verification: Test and critically evaluate the solution

• Problem finding: The active discovery of problems to be solved.

  The Creative Personality

• Researchers have found that creative people:

  1. Are not necessarily highly intelligent and vice versa

  2. Have a greater-than-average range of knowledge and interests

  3. Open to a wide variety of experiences

  4. Enjoy symbolic thought, ideas, concepts, and possibilities

  5. Value independence and prefer complexity

  8.5 Psychology and Your Skill Set: Creativity and Innovation

  The DNA of Innovation

• Making association: The ability to connects ideas, questions, or concepts that seem to be completely unrelated

• Asking questions: Challenge conventions and refuse to accept the status quo

• Mental set: A predisposition to perceive or respond in a particular way.

  Seek Varied Input Through Networking

• Brainstorming: Method of creative thinking that separates the production and evaluation of ideas.

• Cross-stimulation effect: In group problem-solving, the tendency of one person’s ideas triggers ideas from others.

  Observe and experiment

  • May require trial and error

  • Ask questions

Chapter In Review:

8.1 The Basic Units of Cognition: Mental, Imagery, Concepts, and Language

8.1.1 Distinguish between experiential and reflective processing

Experiential processing refers to thinking that occurs quickly and automatically, outside of awareness. Reflective processing refers to effortful, conscious thought that requires attention and concentration.

8.1.2 Explain how imagery is used in thinking

Mental images aid thinking by allowing us to imagine processes or outcomes in an effort to improve upon them. They can also assist with memory. The same brain areas are involved in both vision and visual imagery, and the mental images that are created are three-dimensional and can be mentally rotated. They can also be made larger or smaller in our “mind’s eye.’ Kinesthetic images are a special type of mental imagery and are used to represent movement and actions.

8.1.3 Explain how concepts are used in thinking

Concepts are categories of objects or events. When faced with novel stimuli, we try to classify them using conceptual rules (which provide “boundaries about the things that fall into that category) and prototypes (ideal models of that category). Concepts such as stereotypes can be faulty, though, leading to thinking that is overly simplistic.

8.1.4 Explain how language is used in thinking

Language encodes stimuli and events into symbols for easy mental manipulation during thinking. The linguistic relativity hypothesis holds that just as thought shapes language, so too, language shapes thought. Language carries meaning by combining a set of symbols according to a set of rules (grammar), which includes rules about word order (syntax). The study of word meaning in language is sometimes called semantics, and semantics are influenced by context. Words have denotations (dictionary definitions) and connotations (personal or emotional meanings.) True languages (including complex gestural systems like ASL) are productive and can be used to generate new ideas or possibilities during thinking

8.2 Problem Solving

8.2.1 Distinguish between four methods of problem solving: algorithms, understanding, heuristics, and insight

Algorithmic solutions are derived by employing rule-based strategies (which might well be time-consuming). Algorithms may be inductive (from the specific to more general) or deductive (from more general to specific). Solutions by understanding usually begin with discovery of the general properties of an answer, followed by a functional solution. Problem solving using heuristics refers to the use of “shortcuts” to narrow the search for solutions. Finally, solutions derived using insight usually involved reorganizing a problem in such a way that a rapid solution follows. Three elements of insight are selective encoding, selective combination, and selective comparison.

8.2.2 Outline the barriers that can interfere with problem solving

Problem solving can be blocked by fixations, or a tendency to get “stuck: on wrong solutions. Functional fixedness is a common fixation, and refers to a tendency to see items only in terms of their most common uses. Emotional blocks, cultural values, learned conventions, and perceptual habits can also be barriers to problem solving

8.2.3 Compare the problem solving of experts and novices

Compared to novices, experts’ solutions are of higher quality and are generated more quickly. Cognitive psychologists have suggested that one reason that explains these findings is that experts have more prior knowledge than novices. More prior knowledge means that experts are better able to see the deep structure of problems rather than being distracted by their surface structure, and this allows them to focus on the most relevant aspects of the problem. A second reason that explains the better problem solving of experts relates to the organization of prior knowledge in long-term memory. Specifically, experts’ knowledge is chunked, allowing them to draw a greater amount of information back into the limited space of working memory where problem solving happens.

8.3 Intuition, Decision Making, and Cognitive Biases

8.3.1 Distinguish between four common biases that can lead to errors in decision-making: framing, availability, representativeness, and ignoring the odds

Framing errors occur when we respond to how a problem is worded instead of focusing on the problem’s fundamentals. The availability heuristic refers to our tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event based strictly on how easily similar events can be called to mind from long-term memory. The representativeness heuristic influences decisions by guiding us to give greater weight to options that seem to be similar to what we already know. Finally, when making decisions people often fail to consider the base rate, or probability, or events-this is referred to as ignoring the odds.

8.3.2 Explain what is meant by choice overload

Choice overload refers to situations in which having many options is not beneficial because we feel overwhelmed and unable to make a decision. It stems from a phenomenon called the paradox of choice, which suggests that although we usually like to have many options so that we can select with so many alternatives has the paradoxically opposite effect, preventing us from choosing anything at all.

8.4 Creative Thinking

8.4.1 Describe the nature of creative thinking and how it is measured

Creative thinking requires divergent thought, characterized by fluency, flexibility, and originality. Problem finding, or actively seeking out problems to solve, is another characteristic of creative thinkers. Creativity is often measured using tests of divergent thinking, such as the Unusual Uses test and the Consequences test.

8.4.2 Outline the five stages of creative problem solving

Five stages often seen in creative problem solving are orientation, preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.

8.4.3 Describe five characteristics associated with a creative personality

Studies suggest that creative personality has a number of characteristics, most of which contradict popular stereotypes. First, only a very small correlation exists between IQ and creativity; creative people are not necessarily “intelligent,” as defined by standardized tests. Second, creative people have a broad range of experiences and interests. Third, they are open to new experiences and questions assumptions. Fourth, they enjoy abstract ideas and symbolic thought. Fifth, creative individuals value independence and complexity.

8.5 Psychology and Your Skill Set: Creativity and Innovation

8.5.1 Create a plan to enhance your creativity and innovation skills

There are several things that you can do to boost your creativity and innovation skills, including making associations between unrelated ideas, asking good questions, seeking input from others, and engaging in observation and experimentation. We hope that after reading this section, you’ll be better able to think about how you can use these strategies to help boost your creative juices.