Purple = Essential Terms

Yellow = Key Terms

Red = Important Terms

Blue = Minor Terms

Green = Examples

Constitution/Amendments, Required Docs, SCOTCUS

Articles:

Article I established Congress as the legislative branch of the federal government and lists the powers of Congress.

Article II describes the role and power of the Executive branch.

Article III created the Supreme Court but allowed Congress to establish lower courts.

Article IV deals with state citizenship, the relationship between states, and the relationship between the states and the federal government.

Article V describes the process for amending the Constitution.

Article VI states the Constitution as the highest law of the land, which federal and state officers and judges must uphold.

Article VII describes the process for the ratification of the Constitution.

Clauses:

The Legislative Vesting Clause (Article I, Section 1) grants all legislative power to Congress.

The Origination Clause (Article I, Section 7) requires all tax and revenue bills to start in the House of Representatives.

The Commerce Clause (Article I, Section 8) gives Congress the power to regulate foreign and domestic trade.

The Necessary and Proper (“Elastic”) Clause (Article I, Section 8) grants Congress general powers that are not explicitly named in the Constitution but are needed to fulfill its duties.

The Slave Importation Clause (Article I, Section 9) ended the importation of slaves in twenty years (1808).

The Titles of Nobility and Foreign Emoluments Clause (Article I, Section 9) prohibits the federal government from granting titles of nobility and restricts federal government members from receiving gifts, emoluments, or foreign offices or titles without the consent of Congress.

The Executive Vesting Clause (Article II, Section 1) establishes the office of President and Vice President for a four-year term.

The Take Care Clause (Article II, Section 3) gives the President the power of the discretion of enforcing laws, yet limits their authority to suspend law

The Full Faith and Credit Clause (Article IV, Section 1) requires states to recognize other state courts' civil judgments and to accept their public records and acts as valid.

The Privileges and Immunities Clause (Article IV, Section 2) requires individual states to grant citizens of all other states the same rights as their own citizens.

The Extradition Clause (Article IV, Section 2) requires that a person who is charged with a crime in one state and flees to another is returned to the charging state by the harboring state.

The Supremacy Clause (Article VI, Clause 2) gives the Constitution and federal laws priority over any conflicting state laws.

The Establishment Clause (First Amendment) forbids Congress from establishing a national religion.

The Free Exercise Clause (First Amendment) forbids Congress from prohibiting the free exercise of religion.

The Due Process Clause (Fifth Amendment) forbids punishment by the national government without due process of the law.

The Takings Clause (Fifth Amendment) forbids the government from taking private property for public use without just compensation.

The Equal Protection Clause (Fourteenth Amendment) forbids states from denying any person within their jurisdiction the equal protection of the law.

Amendments:

The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution that spell out Americans’ rights in relation to the government.

The First Amendment protects freedoms of speech, religion, the press, assembly, and petition.

The Second Amendment protects the right to keep and bear arms.

The Third Amendment protects against the unconsented quartering of soldiers.

The Fourth Amendment protects against unreasonable search and seizure.

The Fifth Amendment protects the rights of those accused of a crime (e.g., the right to a grand jury, no "double jeopardy" or self-incrimination, due process, and takings).

The Sixth Amendment protects rights in criminal prosecutions (e.g., the right to a speedy trial by jury, witnesses, and counsel).

The Seventh Amendment protects rights in civil trials (e.g. jury in civil lawsuits).

The Eighth Amendment protects against cruel and unusual punishment, including excessive bail and fines.

The Ninth Amendment grants unenumerated rights to the people.

The Tenth Amendment reserves non-delegated, nor prohibited, rights to the states or the people.

The Eleventh Amendment prohibits the federal courts from hearing lawsuits against states filed by citizens of other states or countries.

The Twelfth Amendment separated the electoral votes for the President and Vice President into individual votes.

The Thirteenth Amendment forbade slavery and involuntary servitude.

The Fourteenth Amendment granted citizenship and equal rights to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves.

The Fifteenth Amendment protects the voting rights of all citizens regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

The Sixteenth Amendment granted Congress the power to impose an income tax.

The Seventeenth Amendment granted people the right to vote directly for their Senators by popular vote.

The Eighteenth Amendment prohibited the manufacture, sale, and distribution of alcoholic beverages.

The Nineteenth Amendment protects the voting rights of all citizens regardless of sex.

The Twentieth (“Lame-Duck”) Amendment established rules for presidential succession, term limits, and inauguration periods.

The Twenty-First Amendment repealed the prohibition of alcohol.

The Twenty-Second Amendment limits the president to two terms in office.

The Twenty-Third Amendment Grants Washington D.C. citizens the right to vote and Electoral College votes.

The Twenty-Fourth Amendment prohibits poll taxes in federal elections.

The Twenty-Fifth Amendment established procedures for filling presidential and vice-presidential vacancies and made provisions for presidential disability.

The Twenty-Sixth Amendment lowered the legal voting age to 18.

The Twenty-Seventh Amendment banned Congress from granting themselves pay raises during the current session.

Foundational Documents:

The Federalist Papers were a series of essays written to persuade New York voters to ratify the Constitution.

The Anti-Federalist Papers were a series of essays written to encourage New York voters to reject the proposed Constitution.

The Declaration of Independence (1776) was the founding document written by Thomas Jefferson that dissolved political bonds with Great Britain and explained why America declared independence.

• The Declaration of Independence is the foundation for the social contract and popular sovereignty.

The Articles of Confederation (1781) were the first governing document of the confederated states, which had a unicameral legislature and a weak central government.

• The Articles of Confederation established a “firm league of friendship.”

• The legislative branch (Congress) was the ONLY federal branch under the Articles of Confederation; each state had one vote.

The United States Constitution (1787) is the document that embodies the fundamental laws and principles by which the United States is governed.

• The Constitution established a republican democracy with power divided among the federal and state governments.

Federalist No. 10 is a document by James Madison that argues that a strong republican government protects individual liberty and guards against control by factions.

• Federalist No. 10 addresses the dangers of tyrannical factions in democracy.

Federalist No. 51 is a document by James Madison that advocates the separation of powers and addresses checks and balances.

• Federalist No. 51 argues that “If men were angels, no government would be necessary” and that popular sovereignty is the primary control on the government.

• Congress is the most powerful and must be divided between two chambers that keep each other in check (bicameralism).

Federalist No. 70 is a document by Alexander Hamilton that advocates a strong, unitary executive to ensure government accountability and enable the president to defend against legislative encroachments on his power.

• Federalist No. 70 argues that a “feeble (weak) executive” implies a bad execution of the government and that the legislative branch is ineffective and cumbersome.

• A strong executive is essential to protect against foreign attacks and to enforce laws.

Federalist No. 78 is a document by Alexander Hamilton that discusses the power of judicial review and the supremacy of the Constitution.

• Federalist No. 78 advocates “the permanent tenure of judicial offices” and a weak, independent judiciary that depends on the other federal branches.

• The Judiciary is the weakest branch.

Brutus #1 is an anti-federalist paper that argues the Constitution represents a threat to individual rights and liberties.

• Brutus #1 argues that a confederation of small republics protects personal liberties.

• Brutus argues that, under the Constitution, “the government is to possess absolute and uncontrollable power, legislative, executive, and judicial, with respect to every object to which it extends,” calling out Article I and Article VI as dangers to liberty.

• Brutus claims that “a free republic cannot succeed over a country of such immense extent, containing such a number of inhabitants,” to argue that the United States is too vast to allow a republic to succeed.

The Letter from Birmingham Jail is a letter by Martin Luther King Jr. that defends the strategy of direct nonviolent resistance to racism as a citizens’ moral responsibility.

• The Letter from Birmingham Jail distinguishes between just and unjust laws and supports nonviolent civil disobedience to encourage negotiation.

Supreme Court Cases:

Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the power of judicial review.

• Marbury v. Madison ruled that a writ of mandamus was beyond the Supreme Court's original jurisdiction; therefore, the Judiciary Act granting such powers violated the Constitution.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) guaranteed the supremacy of federal laws over state laws and declared that Congress had implied powers.

• McCulloch v. Maryland ruled that Congress has implied powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause to create a national bank, and states cannot tax a federally chartered bank.

Schenck v. U.S. (1919) ruled that First Amendment free speech rights are not absolute, and speech can be banned if the information endangers public safety or welfare.

• Schenck v. U.S. ruled that the First Amendment’s Free Speech Clause does not protect speech that presents a “clear and present danger.”

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS (1954) deemed the racial segregation of public schools a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause.

• Brown v. Board of Education ruled that “separate but equal” facilities for racial minorities were inherently unequal and, therefore, were a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

• Brown v. Board of Education overturned the “separate but equal” doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

Baker v. Carr (1962) established "one person, one vote" to ensure equal representation in congressional districts under the Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause.

• Baker v. Carr ruled that a Tennessee reapportionment law violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and that issues involving constitutional rights merited judicial evaluation.

Engel v. Vitale (1962) ruled that religious practices within a public school system violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.

• Engel v. Vitale ruled that non-denominational school-sponsored prayer within a public school system is inconsistent with the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) ruled that a criminal trial defendant maintains the Sixth Amendment right to a fair trial, and the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause makes this right applicable to the states.

• Gideon v. Wainwright ruled that the Sixth Amendment’s right to a fair trial requires states to provide legal counsel to impoverished defendants charged with a felony.

Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969) ruled that students have the right to free speech under the First Amendment, and stepping onto school property doesn't forfeit free expression rights.

• Tinker v. Des Moines ruled that school officials could not prohibit symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment’s Free Speech Clause only on the suspicion that the speech might disrupt the learning environment.

New York Times v. U.S. (1971) ruled that the government cannot exercise prior restraint of speech, even in cases involving national security, under the First Amendment Free Press Clause.

• York Times v. U.S. ruled that the press could publish the then-classified Pentagon Papers without risk of government censorship or punishment under the First Amendment Freedom of Press.

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) ruled that students’ First Amendment religious freedom outweighs state law and that states cannot force students to attend secondary school.

• Wisconsin v. Yoder ruled that a Wisconsin education law requiring Amish students to attend school after the eighth grade infringed on the student's religious freedom and violated the First Amendment's Free Exercise Clause.

Roe v. Wade (1973) ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause extends the right to privacy to a woman’s right to have an abortion without state interference.

• Roe v. Wade was overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022), which held that the Constitution does not confer a right to abortion.

Shaw v. Reno (1993) ruled race cannot be the predominant factor in redrawing legislative boundaries under the Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause.

• Shaw v. Reno ruled the shape of the North Carolina legislative district unconstitutionally separated voters along racial lines, which violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because it causes racial imbalances in the treatment of citizens.

U.S. v. Lopez (1995) ruled that the Commerce Clause grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce but not intrastate commerce.

• U.S. v. Lopez ruled that a federal law banning guns in schools overstepped Congress' power of interstate commerce in the Commerce Clause and violated the state rights guaranteed by the Tenth Amendment.

Citizens United v. F.E.C. (2010) ruled that independent expenditures are free speech and cannot be limited by federal law under the First Amendment Free Speech Clause.

• Citizens United v. F.E.C. ruled that the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002’s restrictions on independent political expenditures for political ads violated corporations' First Amendment freedom of speech.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010) ruled that the Second Amendment right to bear arms is applied to the states through the selective incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause.

• McDonald v. Chicago ruled that the Second Amendment right to bear arms protects an individual’s right to own a personal firearm and is made applicable to state and local governments through the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process Clause.

U1: Foundations of American Democracy

Chapter 1:

Democracy is a government by the people, either directly or indirectly.

• Direct democracy is a government where citizens vote on laws and select officials directly (e.g., referendum, ballot initiative, recall vote, town assembly).

• Representative (republican) democracy is a government in which the people elect those who govern and pass laws (e.g., Congress)

• Pluralist democracy is a government in which no one group dominates politics, and organized groups (e.g., interest groups) compete with each other to influence policy.

• Elitist democracy is a government in which few people, usually the wealthy and well-educated, influence political decision-making (e.g., Electoral College)

• Participatory democracy is a government in which citizens can decide directly on policies, and politicians are responsible for implementing these policy decisions (e.g., town hall meetings, initiatives, popular referendums).

• Constitutional democracy is a government that enforces recognized limits on those who govern and allows the people's voice to be heard through free, fair, and frequent elections.

Anarchy is the absence of government and laws.

Autocracy is government by one person with absolute power.

• Dictatorship is a government in which the leader has absolute power and authority.

• A monarchy is a government ruled by a monarch.

An oligarchy is a government ruled by a few powerful people.

A junta is a government that has taken power in a country by force.

Theocracy is a government controlled by religious leaders.

Totalitarianism is a government that takes centralized control over all aspects of public and private life.

A direct primary is an election in which voters choose political party nominees.

An initiative is a procedure whereby a certain number of voters propose a law or constitutional amendment by petition and have it submitted to voters.

A referendum is a procedure that allows citizens to vote on measures passed by the legislature or proposed amendments to a state constitution.

A recall is a procedure that allows voters to remove officials from office before the end of their term.

Constitutionalism is a set of arrangements that require leaders to listen, think, bargain, and explain before they act or make laws and hold them accountable for how they exercise their power.

Political culture is the widely shared beliefs, values, and norms citizens hold about their relationships with the government and one another.

Shared values are the widely shared beliefs of a country or group of people.

Personal liberty is the freedom of an individual to act freely, limited only by the authority of law to secure public welfare.

Individualism is the principle of valuing individual freedom and rights over those of the government.

Equality is equal rights and opportunities for all, regardless of race, gender, class, or religion.

The American Dream is the idea that the United States is a land of opportunity where individual initiative and hard work can bring economic success.

The majority rule governs according to the preferences of the majority and requires at least fifty percent of the vote in an election (e.g., Electoral College vote).

The plurality rule governs according to the popular vote and requires the most votes cast in an election (e.g., presidential popular vote).

The Rule of the Law (Justice) is the idea that the government is based on a body of law applied equally and fairly to every citizen and that no one is above the law.

Capitalism (free enterprise) is an economic system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit with limited government involvement.

Thomas Hobbes (Monarchy—Absolute Sovereignty) is an Enlightenment philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by human selfishness.

John Locke (Representative Democracy—Social Contract) is an Enlightenment philosopher who advocated the idea of a “social contract” in which the government serves the people and derives its power from the consent of the governed.

Charles Montesquieu (Republican Government—Separation of Powers) is an Enlightenment philosopher who argued for the separation of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial realms that kept each other in check.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Direct Democracy—Social Contract) is an Enlightenment philosopher who advocated for direct democracy under a social contract in which everyone voted to express the general will and to make laws of the land.

Shays’ Rebellion (1786-87) was a rebellion of farmers in western Massachusetts protesting mortgage foreclosure.

• Shays’ rebellion highlighted the need for a strong central government by spreading fear of anarchy and demonstrating the failures of the Articles of Confederation in that the national government lacked the power to raise troops to suppress the rebellion.

The Articles of Confederation were the first governing document of the United States that established a weak unicameral legislature and relied too much on agreement between the states.

• The Articles of Confederation required nine of thirteen states to pass any major laws and complete state approval to amend the articles.

• The Articles of Confederation did not grant Congress the power to levy taxes or regulate trade.

• The Articles of Confederation did not have a national Executive or Judiciary.

A social contract is an implicit agreement among members of a society to cooperate for social benefits (e.g., the United States Constitution).

Chapter 2:

Popular sovereignty (consent) is the idea that a just government must derive its powers from the consent of the people it governs.

The Annapolis Convention (1786) was held to discuss the issue of controlling commerce and led to the call for the Constitutional Convention.

The Constitutional Convention (1787) was a Philadelphia convention that debated and agreed upon the United States Constitution.

Unicameralism is the principle of a one-house legislature.

Bicameralism is the principle of a two-house legislature.

The Virginia Plan proposed a strong central government with a bicameral legislature based on population, giving dispropriate power to the most populous states.

The New Jersey Plan proposed a strong central government with a unicameral legislature in which each state, regardless of size, would have the same vote.

The Connecticut (“Great”) Compromise proposed a strong central government with a bicameral legislature that called for one chamber where each state had an equal vote and another chamber with representation based on population.

The Three-Fifths Compromise was an agreement to count three out of every five slaves in a state’s total population to determine House apportionment and direct taxation.

The Slave Trade Compromise (1787) was a provision of the Three-Fifths Compromise to eliminate the importation of slaves in 1808 and allow Congress to tax enslaved persons as property.

The Electoral College is the presidential and vice presidential electoral system, in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for a particular party’s candidates.

Federalists are supporters of the ratification of the Constitution.

Anti-federalists are opponents of the ratification of the Constitution.

Ratification is the act of signing a law, treaty, or other legally binding document into law.

Formal powers are powers explicitly granted in the Constitution (e.g., sign or veto bills, make treaties, grant pardons, nominate judges).

Informal powers are powers that are not stated in the Constitution (e.g., executive orders, signing statements, executive agreements, proposing laws).

Legislative Branch (Congress):

Legislative Powers—Pass laws, declare war, levy taxes, establish lower federal courts, regulate interstate commerce, establish number of Supreme Court justices, organize the Executive, organize the Judiciary

Senate (Upper Chamber):

Senate Powers—Conviction trials, approve treaties, confirm presidential appointments, elect V.P. if no sufficient votes

• The Senate has the power to try an impeached official.

• “Advice and consent”—The Senate must approve a treaty or presidential nomination by a two-thirds vote.

• The President of the Senate—the Vice President—must vote to break a tie in the Senate.

• Senators must be 30+ yrs. old, a U.S. citizen for 9+ yrs, and a resident of the state they represent.

House of Representatives (Lower Chamber):

House Powers—Initiate revenue bills, impeachment charges, elect President in Electoral College tie

• The House has the sole power of impeachment.

• House members must be 25+ yrs. old, a U.S. citizen for 7+ yrs, and a resident of the state they represent.

Executive Branch (President):

Executive Powers—Sign or veto laws, command armed forces, grant pardons and reprieves, conduct foreign affairs, negotiate treaties, appoint judges and ambassadors, execute laws, signing statements, executive orders, direct bureaucratic agencies, State of the Union Address, propose laws

• The President must inform Congress of the State of the Union.

• The President can make temporary appointments without Senate consent if there is a vacancy and the Senate is in recess.

• The President can be impeached for treason, bribery, or other high crimes or misdemeanors.

• The President must be 35+ yrs. old, a U.S. citizen, and a U.S. resident for 14+ yrs.

Judicial Branch (Supreme Court):

Judicial Powers—Declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional, interpret the law, settle legal disputes (original jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction), officiate presidential impeachment trials

• The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases involving disputes among ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, or between the states.

• Supreme Court justices hold life tenure in office.

• The Chief Justice officiates the trial when the President is tried for impeachment.

Formal/Informal Amendment Process:

Formal Amendment Process:

Proposal—

1. Congress can propose an amendment by a two-thirds vote in both houses.

2. Congress can call a national convention when requested by two-thirds of the state legislatures.

Ratification—

1. The legislatures of three-fourths of the states can ratify an amendment.

2. Special state conventions in three-fourths of the states can ratify an amendment.

Informal Amendment Process:

An informal amendment is the process by which changes have been made to the Constitution over time without any changes to its written words.

Five Informal Processes:

1. The passage of laws by Congress

2. Actions taken by the President

3. Supreme Court decisions

4. Political party activities

5. Customs and usage

A limited government is a government whose powers are defined and limited by a Constitution.

Separation of powers is the division of powers among the three branches of national government.

Checks and balances grant each branch of government the power to check the actions of the others to prevent the abuse of power (e.g., impeaching the President, impeaching judges, vetoing legislation, nominating judges, declaring laws unconstitutional, declaring presidential acts unconstitutional).

• Legislative can check Executive by impeaching the President.

• Legislative can check Judicial by impeaching judges.

• Executive can check Legislative by vetoing legislation.

• Executive can check Judicial by nominating judges.

• Judicial can check Legislative by declaring laws unconstitutional.

• Judicial can check Executive by declaring presidential acts unconstitutional.

Chapter 3:

Federalism is a system in which power is divided among the national and state governments.

• Dual (“layer-cake”) federalism is a strict separation of powers between the federal and state governments in which each has its own responsibilities and reigns supreme within its realm.

• Cooperative (“marble-cake”) federalism is a flexible relationship in which the federal and state governments collaborate on various issues and programs.

• Competitive (“fiscal”) federalism is a system that encourages state and local governments to compete for residents, businesses, investments, and federal funding.

• Restrictive federalism is a system with a strong federal government that only permits states to act when it decides to do so.

• Coercive federalism is a system with tight control of the states through federal orders or mandates.

Devolution is the transfer of power from a large, central government to smaller, more localized regions of power.

A unitary system is a system that vests all governmental power in the central government.

A confederation system consists of sovereign nations that create a central government but limit its authority and do not give it direct authority over individuals.

A divided government is a government divided between the parties, as when one holds the presidency and the other controls Congress.

A unified government is a government in which the same party controls both branches.

Natural law is a law that defines right from wrong and is higher than human law.

Impeachment is a formal accusation against a public official.war

The originalist (textualism, strict constructivism) approach holds that the Constitution has a fixed meaning that is determined by a strict reading of the text or the Framers’ intent.

The adaptive (loose constructivism) approach holds that the Constitution is flexible and responsive to changing needs.

Enumerated (expressed, delegated) powers are powers of the federal government that are explicitly named in the Constitution (e.g., levy taxes, regulate commerce, borrow and coin money, establish post offices, raise an army, declare war)

Concurrent powers are powers shared by the federal government and the states (e.g., taxation, establishing courts, borrowing money, lawmaking and enforcement, chartering banks and corporations).

Reserved powers are powers reserved to the states alone (e.g., conducting elections, establishing local governments, regulating intrastate commerce).

Exclusive powers are powers of the federal government alone (e.g., declaring war, coining money, establishing inferior courts, regulating interstate commerce, conducting foreign affairs)

Implied powers are the federal government's powers that are not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution but are assumed from the expressed powers (e.g., regulate immigration, create a national bank, establish a military draft, punish tax evasion, punish mail fraud, set a federal minimum wage)

Inherent powers are the federal government's necessary powers to make and execute laws (e.g., border security, foreign negotiation, acquisition of territory, defense of the nation, international agreements).

An interstate compact is an agreement between two or more states that Congress must approve (e.g., environmental protection, crime control, water rights, higher education exchanges).

Preemption is the right of a national law or regulation to prevent enforcement of a state or local law or regulation.

Centralists favor national action over action at the state and local levels.

Decentralists favor state or local action over national action.

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2011) is a Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of the 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (“Obamacare”) by finding it imposed through Congress’ taxing power and the Medicaid expansion legal by prohibiting the withdrawal of existing funds from states that refuse to comply with the A.C.A.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) is a Supreme Court case that ruled that Congress has exclusive power over interstate Commerce under the Article I Commerce Clause, and states cannot interfere.

Barron v. Baltimore (1833) is a Supreme Court case that ruled the Bill of Rights restricts only the powers of the federal government, not the state governments.

Categorical grants are federal grants restricted to specific purposes (e.g., highway program grants, education grants)

Project grants are federal categorical grants given for specific purposes and awarded on the basis of the merits of applicants (e.g., research grants, water project grants, government facility grants)

Formula grants are federal categorical grants given according to a defined set of rules (e.g., Head Start, Food Stamps, Medicaid).

Block grants are federal grants issued to support broad programs (e.g., welfare grants, community development grants, public health grants).

A federal mandate is a requirement that the federal government imposes as a condition for receiving funds (e.g., the Real ID Act).

• An unfunded mandate is a mandate imposed on state or local governments without providing national funds (e.g., the Clean Air Act, the Americans with Disabilities Act).

Federal revenue sharing is the practice of sharing federal income tax with state and local governments.

Chapter 12:

Stakeholders are people with an interest or concern in a political issue.

The policy agenda is the set of issues that gets the attention of stakeholders and decision-makers.

Public policy is a course of action the government makes in response to a political issue.

• A distributive policy is a public policy that provides benefits to all groups in a society (e.g., Social Security).

• A redistributive policy is a public policy that provides to one group of society while taking from another group through policy solutions (e.g., tax increases to fund job training).

• A regulatory policy is a public policy that imposes controls and restrictions on certain activities or behaviors (e.g., minimum wage)

U2: Interactions Among The Branches of Government

Chapter 10:

Constituents are the residents of a congressional district or state.

Reapportionment is the assigning of congressional seats after each census by Congress.

Redistricting is the process of state legislatures adjusting electoral districts.

Gerrymandering is the act of changing the boundaries of an electoral district to favor one party over another.

• Packing concentrates a party's voting power in one district to reduce their voting power in other districts.

• Cracking dilutes the voting power of a party's supporters across many districts.

• Kidnapping moves an incumbent's home address into another district.

• Hijacking redraws districts to force two incumbents to run against each other in one district, ensuring that one of them will be eliminated.

Senate (Upper Chamber of Congress):

• Size: The Senate has 100 members, with two representing each state.

• Elections: Senate members serve six-year terms, so one-third of seats are up for re-election within the states every two years.

• Leadership: Weaker leadership gives individual members more freedom and a more equal distribution of power among committee members.

• Legislation: The decision to consider laws is made by unanimous consent, and amendments to laws are generally allowed.

• Debate: The Senate has a less formal debate with flexible limits by unanimous consent that is less sensitive to constituents.

• Special Powers: “Advice and consent,” the Senate picks the V.P. if there is no Electoral College winner, and conviction (impeachment) trials must take place in the Senate.

House of Representatives (Lower Chamber of Congress):

• Size: The House has 435 members, each representing a congressional district of about 700,000 people.

• Elections: House members serve two-year terms, so re-election occurs within districts every two years.

• Leadership: Strong leadership controls action by individual members and allocates more power to committee leaders.

• Legislation: The decision to consider laws is made by a majority vote, and amendments to laws must be approved before taking action.

• Debate: The House has a formal debate with strict limits that is more sensitive to constituents.

• Special Powers: Revenue bills must originate in the House, and the House must bring articles of impeachment against an official.

The Speaker of the House is the presiding officer in the House of Representatives.

The President Pro Tempore is the officer of the Senate selected by the majority party to act as chair in the absence of the vice president.

The majority leader is the legislative leader selected by the majority party to help plan party strategy, confer with other party leaders, and keep party members in line.

The minority leader is the legislative leader selected by the minority party as a spokesperson for the opposition.

A party whip is a political party official whose task is to ensure party discipline in a legislature.

A party caucus (conference) is a meeting of party members to select party leaders and develop party policy.

Member caucuses are informal groups of Congress members that come together to promote shared legislative interests but do not have the authority to review or pass legislation.

A hold is a practice by which a senator informs Senate leadership that they do not wish for a particular measure or nomination to reach the floor for consideration.

A filibuster is a practice whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor, thereby delaying proceedings and preventing a vote.

A cloture is a procedure for terminating debate, especially Senate filibusters.

A standing committee is a permanent committee established in a legislature, usually focusing on a policy area.

A special (select) committee is a temporary congressional committee created for a specific purpose, sometimes to conduct an investigation.

A joint committee is a congressional committee composed of members of both the House and the Senate.

A conference committee is a committee appointed by the presiding officers of each chamber to adjust differences on a particular bill passed by each in different forms.

The seniority rule assigns the committee chair to the member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on the committee.

The committee chair is the Congress member responsible for running a committee.

• The committee chair goes to the longest-serving member of the majority party in the committee.

A committee ranking member is a Congress member who is second-in-command of a committee or the leader of the committee minority.

• The minority party selects the ranking member.

The House Rules Committee issues rules to govern debate on bills in the full House.

• The closed rule is a procedural House rule that prohibits any bill amendments or provides that only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amendments.

• The open rule is a procedural House rule that permits floor amendments within the overall time allocated to the bill.

The House Ways & Means Committee exercises sole jurisdiction over revenue-raising matters, such as taxes, trade, and entitlement programs.

The House Judiciary Committee oversees the administration of justice within the federal courts, administrative agencies, and law enforcement entities.

The Committee of the Whole is the House committee on which all representatives serve to consider the details of a proposal.

The Senate Foreign Relations Committee leads foreign-policy legislation and debate in the Senate.

Markup is the process in which a committee considers and revises a bill that has been introduced.

A discharge petition is a petition signed by House members to bring a bill out of committee and onto the floor for a vote.

A rider is a provision attached to a bill to secure its passage or defeat.

Unanimous consent is a Senate procedure whereby all members of the group agree on a decision.

A veto is a formal decision to reject a bill passed by Congress.

• A pocket veto is a formal decision by the President to reject a bill passed by Congress after it adjourns by taking no action within ten days.

A veto override is an action taken by Congress to reverse a presidential veto by a two-thirds vote in both chambers

• If the veto on a bill is overturned by Congress, the bill becomes law.

An appropriation (spending) bill is a proposed law that authorizes the spending of government funds.

A committee considers a bill and approves it for sending to the full chamber and placement on the calendar.

A subcommittee holds hearings and marks up a bill before approving it to be sent to the full committee.

Senate leadership votes by “unanimous consent” to schedule a full Senate debate on a bill

The full House floor debates and amends bills sent by the Rules Committee.

The full Senate floor debates and amends bills approved by the unanimous consent of Senate leadership.

The delegate role describes a member of Congress who always follows their constituents’ voting preferences.

The trustee role describes a member of Congress who considers the views of their constituents and uses their own judgment to decide how to vote.

The politico role describes a member of Congress who acts as a trustee or delegate depending on the issue.

The partisan role describes a member of Congress who acts as a firm supporter of one political party.

Logrolling is mutual aid and vote trading among legislators.

“Lame duck” describes an elected official who continues to hold political office during the period between the election and the inauguration of their successor.

Chapter 11:

A pardon is the presidential power to grant a release from the punishment or legal consequences of a crime.

A signing statement is a formal document that explains why a president is signing a bill into law

A presidential ticket is the joint listing of presidential and vice presidential candidates on the same ballot.

President Roles:

The Commander-in-Chief holds supreme command of a country’s armed forces.

The Chief of State is a largely ceremonial role as the symbolic leader of a country.

The Chief Executive is the head of the government that sets broad policy and is responsible for all executive programs.

The Chief Diplomat is responsible for carrying out foreign policy and negotiations.

The Chief Legislator holds the legislative power to oversee the nation's law-making process and can influence Congress to pass certain bills.

The Chief of Party is the head of a political party that helps those in their party advance.

The Chief Persuader outlines the government agenda and helps prepare the annual federal budget.

The Chief Morale Builder sets the moral tone for the nation.

A treaty is a formal, public agreement between the United States and other nations.

An executive agreement is an international agreement between the President and another country that does not require the Senate's consent.

An executive order is a formal order issued by the President or governor that does not require congressional approval but carries the force of the law.

Executive privilege is the right to confidentiality of executive communications.

A recess appointment is a presidential appointment made without Senate confirmation during recess, which is voted on after recess.

A veto threat is a tactic used by the president to persuade legislators to alter the content of the bill by threatening to block it.

The War Powers Resolution of 1973 requires the president to give advance warning of a military attack or ask Congress for a declaration of war or specific legislation.

Impoundment is a decision by the president not to spend money appropriated by Congress, which is prohibited under federal law.

A line-item veto is the presidential power to remove specific items from a bill without vetoing the entire bill, which was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.

Imperial presidency describes a president who acts without consulting Congress or acts in secrecy to evade or deceive Congress.

An executive memorandum is an executive order that does not have the force of the law to undertake action.

The hierarchical (“pyramid”) model is when the president establishes tight control over decision-making.

The collegial (“wheel and spoke”) model involves the president encouraging aides to work together toward a common position.

The competitive (“combative”) model involves the president allowing aides to compete for access.

The Chief of Staff is the head of the White House staff that oversees White House affairs and agenda, and does not require Senate approval.

The White House staff are intensely loyal workers who report solely to the president and are not subject to Senate confirmation.

The cabinet is the president's advisory council, which is selected by the president and approved by the Senate.

The Executive Office of the President (EOP) is the presidential staff agencies that help the president carry out their responsibilities.di

The Vice President is the second-highest officer in the Executive branch and the first in the presidential line of succession.

The bully pulpit is the use of a prominent position to influence public opinion.

Agenda setting is the power of the media to influence the importance of issues by providing coverage.

The presidential approval rating is a rating of the president based on poll responses.

The coattail effect is the concept that one strong candidate on a ballot attracts support for others of the same party on the same ballot.

A rally point is a rise in public approval of the president that follows a crisis (e.g., Bush's approval rise after 9/11)

An election mandate is a president’s claim of broad public support in an election.

President v. Congress:

The President represents the whole nation and focuses on nationwide issues, while Congress represents a single state or district and focuses on local issues.

The President wants to pass orders quickly within their two 4 two-year terms, while Congress has time to wait within 2 to 6-year terms with no limits.

The President campaigns in swing states backed by their national political party, while Congress campaigns in their home states or districts with minimal assistance from their national political party.

Chapter 12:

The bureaucracy is an administrative group of non-elected officials charged with implementing government policies.

• The bureaucracy is created, funded, and regulated by Congress but run by the Executive branch.

• The bureaucracy writes and enforces rules, issues fines, conducts investigations, and testifies before Congress.

A bureaucrat (civil servant) is a nonpolitical appointee of a bureaucracy hired under the merit system.

A department is a bureaucratic agency responsible for implementing broad policy areas (e.g., the Department of Defense, the Department of Homeland Security, the Department of Education, the Department of Transportation).

• An umbrella department is a bureaucratic agency that houses many independent agencies (e.g., Department of Homeland Security, Department of Transportation).

• A single-purpose department is a bureaucratic agency that focuses on one issue.

An independent agency is a bureaucratic agency that operates outside of the control of any one department and has a specific function (e.g., Federal Reserve, Environmental Protection Agency, Drug Enforcement Administration, National Weather Service).

• An independent regulatory commission is a nonpartisan government agency created to regulate and oversee a specific industry or sector whose employees cannot be appointed or fired by the President.

A government corporation is a government agency that operates like a business and provides services to the public (e.g., United States Postal Service).

A presidential appointee is someone selected by the president to fulfill an executive role.

The Senior Executive Service (SES) are civil servants selected by merit who serve in key executive positions below the top presidential appointees.

Civil service is the permanent, nonpartisan branch of government administration that hires and promotes employees based on merit.

The spoils system (patronage) is the practice of hiring and promoting based on loyalty to a political party or candidate.

The merit system is the practice of hiring and promoting based on qualifications and job performance.

The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is a bureaucratic employment agency that administers the Civil Service Exam, publishes job openings, and hires based on merit.

The Pendleton Act of 1883 is a federal law that requires government jobs to be awarded based on merit and makes it illegal to fire government workers solely for political reasons.

The Hatch Act of 1939 is a federal law that restricts the political activity of federal employees, with stricter regulations on higher positions.

Implementation is the execution of an adopted policy as specific by the legislation or policy action.

Administrative discretion is the flexible exercise of judgment and decision-making by public administrators.

Regulations are a set of requirements issued by a government agency to implement laws passed by Congress.

The rule-making process describes the bureaucratic process for developing and issuing rules.

Oversight is a review of the activities of an institution, agency, department, or office.

• “Police patrol” oversight deters problems before they arise by watching the bureaucracy through a routine pattern.

• “Fire alarm” oversight depends on outside groups' finding a major problem before taking action.

Congress can conduct bureaucratic oversight through hearings or investigations, legislation, budget control, and agency reorganization or termination.

The President can conduct bureaucratic oversight by appointing or firing agency heads, issuing executive orders, recommending a budget or legislation to Congress, or recommending agency reorganization.

The Supreme Court can conduct bureaucratic oversight by monitoring bureaucratic wrongdoing and declaring their actions to be illegal.

Red tape describes complex bureaucratic rules and procedures that can slow down or impede action (e.g., applying for a passport or driver’s license).

Agency duplication is when two different government agencies appear to be doing the same thing.

Agency conflict is conflict among bureaucratic agencies that can cause gridlock.

A whistleblower is someone who exposes misconduct in an organization.

Chapter 16:

Individual income tax is a tax levied on the income a person earns, such as wages.

A budget surplus is when the federal government raises more revenue than it spends.

A budget deficit is when the federal government raises less revenue than it spends.

The national debt is the total money the federal government has borrowed to finance deficit spending.

Mandatory spending is spending that is required under the federal budget (e.g., Social Security, Medicare).

• Mandatory spending is mostly entitlement programs funded by elgibility.

Discretionary spending is optional spending that Congress and the President can alter (e.g., Defense, National Parks).

• Discretionary spending involves the most policy debate due to political and idelogical differences.

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) is the bureaucratic agency that handles the budget and manages government agencies.

• The OMB conducts routine bureaucratic oversight and ensures compliance with the president’s agenda.

The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) analyzes presidential budget recommendations and estimates the costs of proposed legislation.

Tax expenditures are a loss of tax revenue due to federal laws that provide special tax incentives or benefits (e.g., tax exemption for college education).

Laissez-faire economics is an economic philosophy of free market capitalism that opposes government intervention.

• Libertarians generally advocate laissez-faire economics.

Supply-side economics is an economic philosophy that cuts taxes and regulations to improve the economy.

• Conservatives generally advocate supply-side economics.

Keynesian economics is an economic philosophy that encourages government spending, even if it causes debt, because demand drives supply.

• Liberals generally advocate Keynesian economics.

The Federal Reserve System (The Fed) is a nonpartisan congressional system that establishes banking practices and regulates currency in circulation and the amount of credit available.

• The Federal Reserve Chair is the head of an independent regulatory agency (the Fed) that controls the flow of money through the United States economy.

• The FED raises the federal funds rate to slow the economy and lowers the rate to quicken the economy by making more money available.

• The FED members are appointed by the President and approved for the Senate for 14-year terms, with new members every two years.

Monetary policy is the use of the money supply and interest rates by the central bank (e.g., the Federal Reserve) to influence the economy.

Fiscal policy uses government spending and taxation to influence the economy (e.g., government-funded programs, tax revenue, budget management).

Monetary v. Fiscal Policy:

The goal of monetary policy is to manipulate the economy to promote overall growth and wealth.

• The FED runs monetary policy for the United States through interest rates, bank regulation, and currency.

The goal of fiscal policy is to fund economic and policy priorities by controlling taxation and spending.

• Fiscal policy strives to avoid budget deficits, which cause larger debt.

U3: Civil Liberties & Civil Rights

Chapter 13:

Judicial review is the power of a court to review laws or regulations to determine their constitutionality.

Criminal law is a law that defines crimes against the public order.

Civil law is a law that governs relationships between individuals and defines their legal rights.

The solicitor general is the Department of Justice official responsible for representing the United States in cases before the Supreme Court

District courts are courts in which criminal and civil cases are originally tried in the federal judicial system.

State courts are the courts that hear cases that involve civil issues or a violation of state law.

Federal courts are the courts that hear cases that involve a violation of federal law.

The Circuit Court of Appeals are courts with appellate jurisdiction that hear appeals from the decisions of lower courts.

The Supreme Court is the “last resort” United States court that can hear appeals from federal circuit courts or state high courts.

Original jurisdiction is the authority of a court to hear a case first.

Appellate jurisdiction is the authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.

Concurrent jurisdiction is the authority of more than one court to hear a case.

A writ is a formal petition seeking the Court’s review.

• A writ of habeas corpus is a court order requiring an explanation to a judge why a prisoner is being held in custody.

• A writ of certiorari is a formal order used to bring a case before the Supreme Court.

Senatorial courtesy is the presidential custom of submitting prospective appointees for approval to senators from the states where the appointees are to work.

Judicial restraint is a philosophy that judges should only overturn the actions of the elected branches if they clearly violate the Constitution.

Judicial activism is a philosophy that judges should freely strike down laws enacted by the elected branches.

The American Bar Association (A.B.A.) is a non-governmental organization that rates potential appointees to influence the selection process.

Process of Presidential Appointment:

1. Presidential Submission: The President submits the name to the Senate and waits for confirmation.

2. Senate Judiciary Committee: The Judiciary Committee holds a hearing to interview candidates and votes on the nomination, sending its recommendation to the full Senate.

3. Full Senate: The nomination must receive a majority vote in the full Senate to be appointed.

In forma pauperis is a petition that allows a party to file as a “pauper” and avoid paying court fees.

The petitioner is the party who petitions a court to take action.

The respondent is the party who responds to a court petition.

The Rule of Four is the Supreme Court’s practice of hearing a case only if at least four judges vote to do so.

The docket is the list of potential cases that reach the Supreme Court.

An Amicus Curiae Brief (“Friend of the Court” Brief) is a legal brief filed by a third party to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.

The opinion of the court (Majority Opinion) is an explanation of a court decision.

The dissenting opinion is an opinion disagreeing with the majority in a Court ruling.

Law clerks are assistants to judges who perform legal research, help write opinions, and provide general assistance.

Stare Decisis is the rule of precedent whereby the courts follow decisions made in prior cases.

A precedent is a decision made by a higher court that is binding on all other federal courts.

A conference is a meeting between the Supreme Court judges to discuss the cases heard that week.

Chapter 14:

An ex post facto law is a law that imposes punishment retroactively.

A bill of attainder is a law that imposes punishment without a trial.

The Due Process Clause is a Fifth Amendment clause that limits the power of the national government.

Selective incorporation is the incorporation of certain parts of an amendment at the state level.

Civil liberties are constitutional protections of all persons against governmental restrictions on their freedoms.

Gitlow v. New York (1925) is a Supreme Court case that interpreted the Constitution to protect freedom of speech from state and local governments.

The clear and present danger test rules that the government cannot interfere with speech unless it presents a clear danger that will lead to evil or illegal acts.

The bad tendency test rules that the government can forbid speech encouraging people to engage in illegal action.

The preferred position doctrine rules that the government cannot restrict freedom of expression through words or pictures.

Prior restraint is censorship imposed before speech is made.

Content/Viewpoint-neutral laws apply to all kinds of speech and to all views, not only those that are unpopular or divisive.

Libel is written defamation of another person.

Slander is spoken defamation of another person.

Obscenity is work that depicts sexual content in an offensive way that lacks serious value.

Fighting words are words that inflict injury on those to whom they are addressed or incite them to act violently.

Civil disobedience is a deliberate refusal to obey a law or comply with the orders of public officials to express opposition.

The Federal Communications Commission (F.C.C.) regulates the broadcast system by granting licenses, regulating their use, and imposing fines for indecent content.

Eminent domain is the power of a government to take private property for public use.

Due process is established rules and regulations that restrain government officials.

• Procedural due process is a requirement that the government follow a certain set of procedures to limit how they exercise power.

• Substantive due process requires that the law be the same for everyone to limit what the government may do.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) is a Supreme Court case that guarantees the right to personal privacy.

Roe v. Wade (1973) is a Supreme Court case that uses the Due Process clause to extend the right to privacy to a woman’s decision to terminate her pregnancy.

A search warrant is a writ that authorizes the police to search a particular place or person, specifying the place to be searched and the objects to be seized.

The exclusionary rule is a requirement that evidence unlawfully obtained be excluded from a criminal trial.

The Miranda warning requires law enforcement to inform suspects that they have the right to remain silent and have counsel while being interrogated.

Double jeopardy forbids repeated trial or punishment for the same crime by the same government.

An indictment is a formal written statement from a grand jury charging an individual with an offense.

A grand jury determines whether there is sufficient evidence to bring the accused to trial.

A petit jury determines whether a defendant is guilty in a civil or criminal action.

An impartial jury is a jury that represents a fair cross-section of the community.

Terry v. Ohio (1968) is a Supreme Court case that ruled the police can "stop and frisk" a person they reasonably suspect to be armed and involved in a crime.

New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985) is a Supreme Court case that ruled school officials have the authority to conduct warrantless searches on students.

Gregg v. Georgia (1976) is a Supreme Court case that ruled the death penalty does not violate the Eighth Amendment if imposed for crimes that resulted in a victim’s death.

Chapter 15:

Civil rights are the rights of all people to be free from irrational discrimination.

Natural (human) rights are the rights of all people to dignity and worth.

Affirmative action is remedial action designed to overcome the effects of discrimination against minorities.

Naturalization is a legal action granting citizenship to a non-native-born person.

Dual citizenship is citizenship in more than one nation.

Suffrage is the right to vote in political elections.

The Enemy Alien Act of 1978 ruled that the President can detain and expel citizens of a country with which the United States is at war.

The Federal Civil Rights Act of 1957 made it a crime to threaten or intimidate voting African Americans.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbade discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or nationality.

“Operation Wetback” of 1954 forcibly deported Mexican immigrants and their children.

The Naturalization Act of 1906 restricted Asian Americans from becoming United States citizens.

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 restricted Chinese immigration and excluded Chinese Americans from citizenship.

Koremastu v. United States (1944) is a Supreme Court case that ruled the court cannot reject congressional and military judgment on segregation under threat to national security.

The Indian Removal Act of 1820 required all Native Americans to move west, even if by force.

The rational basis test rules a law is constitutional if it meets a reasonable government interest.

The strict scrutiny test requires the government to show a compelling reason for the law and no less restrictive ways to meet the interest and is applied to suspect classifcations.

The heightened scrutiny test requires the government to show that the law meets an important government interest and is applied for laws classified based on sex.

A literacy test was a literary requirement some states imposed as a condition of voting.

A white primary was a Democratic primary in the South that was limited to white voters.

Racial gerrymandering is the drawing of electoral districts to ensure members of a certain race are a minority.

Poll tax is a tax that is required to vote.

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits racial discrimination in voting and threats or intimidation to prevent voting.

A majority-minority district is a congressional district created to include a majority of minority voters.

Jim Crow Laws were state laws requiring public facilities and accommodations to be segregated by race (e.g., literary tests, poll taxes, white primaries).

De Jure Segregation is segregation imposed by law.

De Facto Segregation is segregation that results from economic or social conditions or personal choices.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) is a Supreme Court case that reinforced legalized segregation with “seperate but equal” facilities and accommodations under the Equal Protection clause.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made discrimination based on race, color, religion, or nationality a federal offense.

• Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 guaranteed equal access to public accommodations.

• Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 barred discrimination in employment.

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a federal agency that works with state authorities to enforce laws against job discrimination and harassment.

California v. Bakke (1978) is a Supreme Court case that ruled a quota for college admissions based on race is constitutional.

Grate v. Bollinger (2003) is a Supreme Court case that struck down a policy giving unfair college admission advantages to minorities.

Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) is a Supreme Court case that ruled schools can use race to achieve diversity but cannot use it as a predominant factor for admission.

D.C. v. Heller (2008) is a Supreme Court case that applied the Second Amendment right to bear arms to citizens in the District of Columbia through the national government.

U4: American Political Ideologies & Beliefs

Chapter 7:

Ideology is the beliefs and ideas that help to shape public opinion and policy.

• Political ideology is the patterns of values and beliefs about politics and the role of the government.

Demography is the study of population characteristics (e.g., age, sex, education, nationality, ethnicity, religion).

Political socialization is the lifelong process by which people develop their political values, attitudes, and beliefs.

• Agents of socialization are the people and institutions that influence political views (e.g., family, schools, peers & friends, mass media)

Globalization is the increasing interconnectedness of people, cultures, economies, and nations facilitated by technology, trade, and cultural diffusion.

Lifecycle effects are the changes in a person as they age.

Generational effects are the common experiences of a certain time period that shape people’s perspectives.

The attentive public are citizens who follow public affairs regularly.

Political efficacy is a citizen’s belief that their vote matters and can influence the government.

Public opinion is the range of opinions expressed within a specific population.

Types of Polls:

A scientific opinion poll is taken by sampling a small portion of the public to predict public opinion.

A generic poll is a poll that is not tied to a specific candidate or state.

A benchmark poll is an initial poll on which campaign strategy is based, and later polls are compared.

A daily tracking poll is a poll that regularly tracks movement.

A straw poll is an unscientific “show of hands” survey used to gauge public opinion on issues and policies.

An entrance poll is taken before voters cast their ballots.

An exit poll is taken after voters have cast their ballots.

A push poll provides negative information on a candidate to lead respondents to vote against them.

The margin of error (sampling error) is a measure of the accuracy of a public opinion poll.

A random sample is a sample that gives everyone a known and equal chance of being selected.

A representative sample is a small sample that accurately reflects a larger population.

A focus group is a small, demographically diverse group assembled for an in-depth discussion.

Intensity is a measure of how strongly an individual holds a particular opinion.

Latency is used to describe political opinions that are held but not expressed.

Salience is the extent to which people believe issues are relevant to them.

Concentration describes views held by a small group in a given area.

Distribution is the spread of people who support a position on a given issue.

Stability describes constant opinions over a long period.

Radicals (Far-Left) favor quick and major changes to social or political life.

Reactionaries (Far-Right) favor a quick return to the previous state of affairs.

Liberals (Left) favor more government regulation of business and support for social welfare but oppose regulation of individual behavior.

Conservatives (Right) favor broad government regulation of individual behavior and a strong national defense but oppose regulation of the economy.

• Fiscal conservatives advocate the reduction of overall government spending and national debt.

• Social conservatives advocate government intervention to uphold traditional morality.

Libertarians favor individual liberty and minimal government.

Chapter 17:

Entitlements are programs that provide benefits to all eligible citizens (e.g., Social Security, Medicare).

• Mean-tested entitlements are programs that require proof of need to receive benefits (e.g., Medicaid, SNAP, TANF).

• Contributory entitlements are programs that benefit qualified people, regardless of need (e.g., Social Security).

A social safety net is a federal program provided to protect Americans against economic and social misfortune.

Social Security is a combination of entitlement programs paid for by employer and employee taxes.

Medicaid is a federal program that provides medical benefits for low-income persons.

Medicare is a national health insurance program that covers those on Social Security, including the elderly and the disabled.

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 is a federal law that requires annual state testing for elementary and secondary schools in all states that wish to receive federal grants-in-aid.

The Patient Protection & Affordable Care Act of 2010 (“ObamaCare”) is a federal statute that provides comprehensive insurance to uninsured Americans.

The USA Patriot Act of 2001 (U.S.A. Freedom Act) is a law that gave the federal government authority to conduct secret investigations of suspected terrorists.

The New Deal (1930s) was federal legislation that made loans to states and localities to assist the poor, elderly, and jobless.

The Great Society (1960s) was Lydon B. Johnson’s vision for America, which demanded an end to poverty and racial injustice.

Chapter 4:

Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of one’s nation or ethnic group.

American Exceptionalism is the idea that America is unique among countries, whether that be superior or inferior.

Reinforcing cleavages are divisions within society that make groups more homogenous and society more polarized.

Cross-cutting cleavages are divisions within society that cross demographic boundaries to produce heterogeneous groups and pull people in different directions.

The Sun Belt is a South and Southwest region with rapid population growth because of its climate, which has attracted retirees.

The Bible Belt is a Southern region with a large population of strongly committed Protestants who seek a larger public role for religion.

The Corn Belt is a Midwest region dominated by farming and agriculture.

The Frost Belt is a region near the Great Lakes where heavy snowfall is common.

Manifest Destiny is a notion that the United States was destined to rule the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Race describes a group of people with distinctive physical characteristics determined by genetic inheritance.

Ethnicity is a social division based on national origin, religion, language, and race.

Fundamentalists are Conservative Christians who adhere strictly to religious beliefs.

The gender gap is the difference in political views or behavior between men and women.

Socioeconomic Status (SES) is a measure of one’s wealth, income, occupation, and education.

• Blue-collar workers are workers who do manual labor and are paid on an hourly or piecework basis (e.g., farmers, construction workers, machine operators, truck drivers).

• White-collar workers are workers in service industries who earn salaries (e.g., managers, accountants, lawyers, technicians, professionals)

Demographics & Ideology:

• In general, Democrats are liberal, and Republicans are conservative.

• Older Americans tend to be conservative on social issues and liberal on economic issues.

U5: Political Participation

Chapter 5:

An interest group is a group of people who share a common interest or attitude and seek to influence the government for specific ends.

A faction is a group with distinct political interests that may be adverse to the larger community.

Pluralism is a government where multiple competing groups can check the asserted power of others.

Hyperpluralism is a government with overly strong groups that weaken the central government.

Elitism is a government where a small number of people hold power, often the wealthy upper class.

An economic interest group is an interest group with a primary aim to improve the economy (e.g., business/industry, trade association, labor union, professional association)

• A business interest group represents business or industry interests (e.g., United States Chamber of Commerce).

• A trade association is a large nationwide association of businesses with similar interests (e.g., American Public Power Association).

• A labor union is an organization of workers who negotiate with employers for the benefit of workers (e.g., International Brotherhood of Teamsters).

• A professional association advocates for those in a particular profession (e.g., American Medical Association).

A non-economic interest group is an interest group that fights for issues or causes instead of material gain (e.g., single-issue, ideological, public, public sector, foreign policy).

• A single-issue interest group is devoted to one particular issue (e.g., National Rifle Association, Mothers Against Drunk Driving).

• An ideological interest group promotes policies based on a set of beliefs (e.g., American Conservative Union).

• A public interest group focuses on topics that affect the general public (e.g., Environmental Defense Fund).

• A public sector interest group represents a government agency (e.g., National Governors Association).

• A foreign policy interest group seeks to influence governmental foreign policy (e.g., American Israel Public Affairs Committee).

Partisanship is strong allegiance to one’s own political party.

Negative partisanship is loyalty to a party driven by hatred of another party.

Bipartisanship is when both major parties work together to find a compromise and solve problems.

A non-partisan (independent) is someone not connected to any political party.

Polarization is the division of political parties.

• Party polarization is caused by distinct party platforms, political ideology, redistricting, and mass media.

• Party polarization amplifies party conflict, makes it hard to compromise, and provides voters with distinct choices.

A political party is a group seeking to influence policy by electing like-minded people to office.

The revolving door is the practice of switching public service jobs for lobbying positions and vice versa.

An issue network is an alliance of various interest groups, committees, and agencies that share a common policy concern.

The iron triangle is the policy-making relationship among Congress, the bureaucracy, and interest groups.

A caucus is a meeting of local party members that decides on the platform and selects party officials or candidates for public office.

A party convention is a meeting of party delegates to discuss policy, nominate candidates, elect officers, and ratify the platform.

A social movement is a large group of citizens organized for political change (e.g., Civil Rights Movement, BLM Movement)

• A grassroots movement is a social or political movement driven by groups of ordinary citizens rather than politicians or other influential individuals.

A coalition is a group united in support of a common cause.

Lobbying describes efforts to inform and influence public officials.

• Cooperative lobbying is when various associations come together on singular issues.

• Grassroots lobbying seeks to use public pressure to influence officials (e.g., petitions, public rallies, flyers, advertisements, websites)

A lobbyist is a person who takes part in an organized attempt to influence legislators.

The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 requires any individual lobbyist to register with congressional offices.

A boycott is withholding money or support for a campaign or cause based on another group’s actions.

A strike is walking out of a job and not returning until demands are met.

A protest is assembling crowds to confront a government or other official organization.

A political action committee (PAC) is a registered fundraising committee that donates on behalf of interest groups.

• A leadership PAC is a committee of officeholders that collects contributions from individuals and other PACs and bundles it to contribute to other candidates and parties.

A SuperPAC is an organization that can raise and spend unlimited funds but cannot coordinate directly with candidates.

• A 527 SuperPAC is a political group that may spend unlimited funds on election activities.

• A 501c4 organization is a nonprofit social welfare group that is permitted to lobby and campaign indirectly in unlimited amounts.

Cohesiveness is when members of a group share common views on the aims of the organization.

Mass mailing targets personalized letters or emails to specific groups and individuals.

Endorsement is making an official announcement to support a specific candidate.

A free rider is someone who does not join a group yet receives the benefits of the group’s influence.

Issue advocacy is promoting a particular position or issue, paid for by interest groups or individuals, not candidates.

An open shop is a company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannot be a required condition of employment.

A closed shop is a company with a labor agreement under which union membership can be a condition of employment.

Collective bargaining is a method in which a union represents a group of employees in negotiations with the employers.

Litigation is the act of going to court and filing a lawsuit.

Chapter 6:

A nonpartisan election is an election in which candidates are not selected or endorsed by political parties, and party affiliation is not listed on the ballot.

Patronage is the act of appointing loyal party members to government positions.

A direct primary is an election in which voters choose party nominees.

An open primary is an election in which any voter, regardless of party, may vote.

A closed primary is an election in which only registered members of the party holding the primary may vote.

A blanket primary is an election in which voters choose candidates for office without regard to party.

Crossover voting is voting by a member of one party for a candidate of another party.

Straight-ticket voting is voting only for candidates from a single party.

A minor (third) party is a political party other than the two major parties.

A two-party system is a government that consists of two major parties that dominate voting at all levels.

A winner-take-all system awards legislative seats only to the party who received the most votes in an election.

Proportional representation awards legislative seats in proportion to the percentage of votes earned by each party in an election.

A critical (“realigning”) election is an election that leads to major party realignment (e.g., 1932 Roosevelt Election)

Party realignment describes a major change in the composition of party coalitions.

Party dealignment is when an individual loses their loyalty to a political party without developing loyalty to another party.

A party chair is the presiding officer of a political party.

The party platform is a document stating the policy positions of a political party.

A party committee consists of delegates who run party affairs between conventions.

Party registration is the act of officially declaring party affiliation.

Party identification is an affiliation with a political party.

An issue activist is someone who wishes to push the party in a particular direction on a single issue or a narrow range of issues.

A party activist is someone who invests time and effort into their political party.

A candidate activist is someone who follows a particular candidate and sees the party as their means to elect the candidate.

A party regular is someone who places their political party first and values winning elections.

Parties in Government:

• Legislative Branch—Depends on partisanship: Power and influence are determined by the party in control of Congress.

• Executive Branch—Presidents select most WH staff and cabinet members from their own party; party commitment is expected from the President

• Judicial Branch—Operates in an expressly nonpartisan manner, but judicial appointment is partisan.

Chapter 7:

An absentee ballot is a voting ballot submitted by mail before an election.

Voter registration is a requirement that eligible voters enroll on an electoral roll before they can vote.

Motor voter laws are laws that require states to allow citizens to register to vote when applying for or renewing their driver’s license.

Voter identification laws are laws that require a person to provide some form of identification before they can register to vote.

Voter turnout is the number of registered voters who vote in an election.

A primary election is an election in which voters determine party nominees.

A general election is an election in which voters elect officeholders.

A presidential election is an election held in a year when the President is on the ballot.

A midterm election is a congressional election that occurs in the middle of a presidential term.

An off-year election is a general election held in a year when neither a presidential nor midterm election takes place.

A special election is an election that occurs outside of the regular election cycle to fill vacancies or conduct referenda.

A runoff election is a second election held amongst the top two candidates if no one wins the majority vote.

Contingent voting is voting in which voters rank the candidates, and the majority vote wins.

Canvassing is going through a district to solicit orders or political support or to determine public opinion.

A swing voter is a voter who is not a firm supporter of any political party and whose vote is difficult to predict.

Candidate appeal is how voters feel about a candidate’s background, leadership abilities, and other personal qualities.

Prospective-issue voting is voting based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future.

Retrospective-issue voting is voting based on the actions of a party or candidate in the recent past.

Candidate-centered voting is voting based on the voter’s most liked person.

Party-line voting is voting for candidates from one political party for all public offices.

Rational choice voting is voting based on what is perceived to be in the voter’s individual interest.

In the United States, the plurality of popular votes wins the state’s electoral votes, and the majority vote among electors (270+) wins the presidential election.

Chapter 8:

Disclosure is making new or secret information known.

Bundling is combining several individual campaign contributions into one large contribution.

Hard money is a political contribution that is limited in amount and fully disclosed.

Soft money is money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building activities.

Dark money is political money where the donor does not have to be disclosed.

An independent expenditure is unlimited spending in campaigns by individuals, groups, or parties without coordination with candidates.

The Federal Election Commission (F.E.C.) enforces federal campaign finance laws and oversees public funding for presidential campaigns.

The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 is a federal law that requires candidates to disclose campaign contributions and expenditures.

The Watergate Scandal (1974) was the burglary and illegal wiretapping of the Democratic National Committee headquarters by President Nixon’s re-election campaign and the subsequent cover-up.

Buckley v. Valeo (1976) is a Supreme Court case that upheld campaign spending limits but ruled that individual candidates may spend unrestricted money on their own campaigns.

The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold Act) of 2002 is a federal act that banned soft money, raised individual contribution limits, and restored electoral spending prohibitions on corporations and unions.

McCutcheon v. F.E.C. (2013) is a Supreme Court case that ruled that unrestricted independent expenditures for political campaigns are a form of freedom of speech.

A faithless elector is an elector who votes for someone other than for whom they pledged.

A battleground state is a state where polls show a close contest between parties.

A single-member district is an electoral district in which voters choose one representative.

A fixed term is a specified length of term in office.

A staggered term is when not all offices are up for election at the same time.

A term limit is a restriction on the number of terms an officeholder may serve in office.

“Permanent campaign” is the idea that the next election campaign begins as soon as the last has ended.

Partisan gerrymandering is dividing a geographic area into electoral districts that give one political party an unfair advantage by dividing the opposition’s voting strength.

The national tide is the inclination to focus on national issues rather than local ones in an election campaign.

A safe seat is an elected office that is predictably won by one party.

An open seat is an elected office that is being contested by candidates who do not currently hold the office.

An incumbent is an official already holding a political office.

A challenger is someone running for a political office they do not currently hold.

Incumbency advantage is the tendency of those currently in office to win re-election (e.g., name recognition, franking privilege, casework, campaign financing).

• Name recognition is the increased familiarity with voters that makes incumbents more recognizable.

• Franking privilege is the ability to send mail by one's signature rather than by postage.

• Casework is legislative work on behalf of individual constituents.

Earmarks (“Pork-Barrel Legislation”) are amendments to legislation that incorporate spending that favors an individual representative(s) district.

Credit claiming is a congressman's effort to get their constituents to believe they are responsible for positive government actions.

Primary Election:

• Electorate: Lower voter turnout than general

• Determines a party’s general election candidate; narrows the field of candidates

• Pits candidates from the same party against one another

General Election:

• Electorate: Higher voter turnout than primary

• Issues are more local than national

• Focuses on candidate appeal

House v. Senate Races:

• Individual Senate campaigns cost more and are more contested than House campaigns

• Senate = national issues; House = local issues

• Senate has less incumbency advantage than the House

A party delegate is someone who speaks or acts on behalf of a party.

• A superdelegate is a delegate seated based on their status as party leader or an elected official who isn’t required to pledge in advance.

Frontloading is moving a primary or caucus date to the beginning of the presidential nomination season.

A front-runner is someone expected to win an election or nomination.

A favorite son is a candidate nominated for office by delegates from their own state.

A dark horse is a candidate for whom expectations are low but who then wins unexpectedly.

A stump speech is a speech politicians deliver repeatedly during their campaign.

A soundbite is a brief, memorable comment often made in news broadcasts.

Chapter 9:

Linkage institutions are channels that connect individuals with the government (e.g., interest groups, elections, political parties, the media).

Mass media is a means of communication that reaches the public.

The 24/7 news cycle is news that is constantly updated and presented via the Internet and cable services.

Fireside chats were radio broadcasts given by President Franklin Roosevelt in the 1930s-40s.

Types of Journalism:

For-profit journalism is news reporting that operates with the goal of earning profit.

Objective journalism is news reporting based on the communication of facts and fairness.

Investigatory (watchdog) journalism is a deep, original investigation on a specific topic that holds the government accountable.

Yellow journalism is news reporting based on sensationalism and crude exaggeration.

Gatekeeping journalism is news reporting with information that is filtered to the public by the media.

Horse-race journalism is news reporting that covers campaigns by emphasizing how candidates score in the polls rather than where they stand on issues.

Biased journalism is news reporting that emphasizes a particular point of view on a matter.

Infotainment journalism is news reporting that presents information in a manner that is meant to be entertaining.

Media conglomerates are companies that control a large number of media sources across several types of media outlets (e.g., Disney, Paramount, CBS, Sony, Fox News, ABC News).

The Federal Communications Commission (F.C.C.) is an independent government agency that regulates interstate and international communications by media outlets.

Regulation is a precise statement of how a law is implemented.

Agenda setting is the ability of the media to influence the importance of topics on the public agenda.

Issue framing is the way the media defines and portrays an issue, which affects public perception.

The bully pulpit is a powerful platform that allows officeholders to share their messages.

Selective exposure describes individuals choosing which media to access based on their beliefs.

Selective perception describes individuals perceiving what they want in media messages.

On the record is information that is public and official.

Off the record is information that is not made public or official.

Political Institutions and News Media:

• Executive Branch: Presidents use the media to set the public agenda and achieve legislative aims.

• Legislative Branch: Individual Congress members use the media to cultivate positive relations. Congress as a whole lacks an ultimate spokesperson and does NOT accomodate the media.

• Judicial Branch: The Supreme Court does NOT rely on public communication for political support, but depends indirectly upon public opinion for deference or compliance with its decisions. The Court regulates the release of trials and avoids being seen as manipulating the press.

The Grandfather policy is a provision in which an old rule continues to apply to some existing situations while a new rule will apply to all future cases.