Why We Compare

●To discover new knowledge and new ways of doing things

●“Without comparisons to make, the mind does not know how to proceed.” (Tocqueville)

●Methodological Core of Scientific Study

●Aristotle: economic and social comparisons of Greek city-states

●Contemporary Political Scientists:

●explain differences between processes and performances of political systems

●compare two-party/multi-party, presidential/parliamentary, poor/rich

How We Compare

●Description: first stage in the study of politics

●Set of concepts to describe it:

●Conceptual framework: clearly defined and well understood

●Intersubjective: understood in same way by different subjects

●The easier this set of concepts is to understand and the more generally it can be applied, the more helpful it is to the study of politics.

How We Explain and Predict

●Identifying Causal Relationships

●Theories: well supported statements about causal relationships

●Hypotheses: causal explanations not yet proven

●Political Data: useful in testing hypotheses

●Variables: differing features associated with cases

●Predictions: testing hypotheses against data

Political Systems:
Environment and Interdependence

●Political System: set of institutions concerned with formulating and implementing collective goals

●Governments are policymaking parts of political systems

●Political system exists in international and domestic environments

●International: exchanges among countries, interdependence and globalization

●Domestic: economic and social systems, political culture

 Political Systems:
Structures and Functions

●Structure: parliaments, bureaucracies, administrative agencies, courts

●Perform functions which enable government to formulate, implement, enforce policies

●Six types of political structures: political parties, interest groups, legislatures, executives, bureaucracies, courts

Political Systems:
Structures and Functions

●Functions: activities necessary for policy to be made and implemented in any political system

●Functions of the System

●Interest Articulation: individuals/groups expressing needs/demands

●Interest Aggregation: combines different demands into policy proposals

●Policymaking: decides which policy proposals become authoritative rules

●Policy Implementation: enforces public policies

●Policy Adjudication: settles disputes about policy application

Political Systems:

Structures and Functions

●System Functions: determine whether or not system will be maintained or changed.

●Types of System Functions

●Political Socialization: families, schools, media, churches, and political structures that develop, reinforce and transform the political culture

●Political Recruitment: selection of people for political activity and government offices

●Political Communication: flow of information through society and various structures that make up the political system

The Policy Level: Performance, Outcome, and Evaluation

●Policy Level of the Political System:

●what do differences in structure and function do for interests, needs, aspirations of people?

●Policy Performance:

●outputs of a political system - extractions, distributions, regulations, symbolic acts

●Outcome of Public Policy:

●never wholly in the hands of the people and leaders:

●internal environment, external world, simple chance may frustrate most thoughtfully crafted programs and plans

●Evaluation:

●assessing performance and outcomes

●consider goods associated with the policy level: welfare, security, fairness, liberty

●assess performance and outcomes in each of these areas