Knowt
Unit 1: Period 1: 1491-1607
1.1: Contextualizing Period 1
The US now is a combination of people around the world
The indigenous people arrived at least 10,000 years ago and they lived there peacefully until the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492, sparking European exploration in the Americas
Columbus’ first voyage is significant because it initiated lasting contact between two groups of people
Across the Atlantic Ocean
his voyages had profound results on how people on each continent lived
1607: Founding of the first permanent English settlement in Jamestown, Virginia
Marked the beginning of the framework of a new nation
Cultural Diversity in the Americas
When Columbus arrived in the Americas, there was already a great variety of culture
Partially due to geography and climate
Each culture developed certain practices and traits to adapt to their environment, like the crops they grew or the materials they built their homes from
Native Americans had also transformed their environments
Ex. building irrigation systems in dry climates or clearing out forests for agriculture
Motives for Exploration
European explorers competed for land in the Americas
First Spanish and Portugal, then France and the Netherlands, then Great Britain
Some were motivated to spread the word of God
Some wanted to become wealthy by
Establishing an all water trade route
Establishing fur-trading posts
Operating gold and silver mines
Developing plantations
Europeans used violence to drive away native inhabitants
Transatlantic Exchange
This contact between the Europeans and the Native Americans sparked a transatlantic trade of animals, plants, and germs
Known as the Columbian Exchange
This trade altered the lives of many around the globe
Crops from the Americas (maize, tomatoes, potatoes, etc.) revolutionized the diet of the Europeans
The transfer of germs from the Europeans, however, caused epidemics along the Native American populations
After the arrival of Europeans, a region’s native population will decline by 90%
Addition of Enslaved Africans
Enslaved Africans added to the diversity of the Americas
They were brought to the Americas as low-cost laborers by the Europeans
They worked in mines and plantations
Africans, just like Native Americans, resisted European domination by maintaining elements of their culture
The three groups influenced each others’ ideas and ways of life
European Colonies
Spanish and Portuguese explorers developed colonies in the Americas
They depended on the physical labor of Native Americans and enslaved Africans for agriculture and mining of precious metals
Mines in South America and Mexico produced vast amounts of silver
Made Spain the wealthiest European empire in the 16th and 17th centuries
1.2: Native American Societies Before European Contract
Original settlement of North and South America began at least 10,000 years ago
Theorized that it could’ve been up to 40,000 years ago
Possibility that migrants from Asia crossed a land bridge that once connected Siberia and Alaska
Submerged under the Bering Sea
Cultures of Central and South America
Aztecs | Incas | Mayas |
|---|---|---|
Formed several years after the Mayas | Developed a vast empire in Peru | Formed between the years 300 to 800 |
Capital city, Tenochtitlán, has a population of 200,000 (the population of the largest city of Europe during that time was the same population) | Built remarkable cities in the Yucatán Peninsula |
They all built highly organized societies, carried on extensive trade, and created calendars based on accurate scientific observation
Cultivated crops that were based on a stable food supply
Corn (maize) for the Aztecs and Mayas
Potatoes for the Incas
Cultures of North America
1490: The population north of Mexico (present-day United States and Canada) ranges from under one million to more than ten million
General Pattern
Native societies in this region included fewer people and their societies weren’t as highly organized as those down south
Reason for this: the spreading of cultivation of corn (maize) from Mexico to the North
Nutrition of corn allowed populations to grow and to become highly organized and socially diversified societies
People specialized in their trade in this society
By 1500, some of the most populous societies in North America had died down and disappeared
Reasons are still unknown to this day
During the time of Columbus’ arrival, Native Americans lived in semipermanent settlements
Men made tools and hunted for game
Women gathered plants and nuts or grew crops such as corn (maize), beans, and tobacco
Language Differences
Cultures were diverse within the Native Americans
English, Spanish, and any other European language has one language family, but Native American languages have more than 20 language families
Largest language families included
Algonquian in the Northeast
Siouan in the Great Plains
Athabaskan in the Southwest
Together, these 20+ language families included more than 400 languages
Northwest Settlements | Southwest Settlements | Great Basin and Great Plains |
|---|---|---|
Current location: along the Pacific coast, modern day Alaska to Northern California | Current location: modern-day New Mexico and Arizona | People adapted to the dry climate of this region by developing mobile ways of living |
Many people lived in permanent longhouses or plank houses | Most known groups in this region include Hohokam, Anasazi, and Pueblo | Nomadic tribes survived off of hunting (mainly buffalo). |
Rich diet based on hunting, fishing, and gathering nuts, berries, and roots | Many people lived in caves, under cliffs, and in multistoried buildings | Buffaloes were their source of food, as well as their decorations, crafting tools, knives, and clothing |
Carved large totem poles to help people remember stories, legends, and myths | Spread of maize cultivation from Mexico allowed for for economic growth and the development of irrigation systems | People lived in tepees (easily transportable homes made from frames of poles covered in animal skins). |
High mountain ranges isolated tribes and created barriers to development | Surplus of wealth allowed for a society with greater variations between social and economic classes to exist | Some people, although nomadic, lived in earthen lodges along rivers. they grew crops such as maize, beans, and squash. they also traded with other tribes |
extreme drought and other hostile natives didn’t allow them to survive by the time the Europeans arrived | acquired horses in 17th century after trading or stealing them from Spanish settlers; with horses, tribes like the Lakota Sioux could easily follow buffalo herds | |
Their descendants continue to live in this area and the climate has allowed their structures to stand | Plains tribes would often merge/split apart based in conditions. migrations were also common |
Mississippi River Valley | Northeast Settlements | Atlantic Seaboard Settlement |
|---|---|---|
Woodland Native Americans prospered with a rich food supply from hunting, fishing, and agriculture | Some of the descendants from Adena-Hopewell had migrated from Ohio River valley to present day New York | Located in present-day New Jersey south to Florida |
Established permanent settlements in Mississippi and Ohio River valleys | Culture combined hunting and farming, but their farming techniques would quickly exhaust the soil, so they would have to move to fresh land frequently | Known tribes were the Cherokee and the Lumbee |
Adena-Hopewell culture (based in current day Ohio) is famous for its earthen mounds | Matriarchal society, Natives lived in longhouses with people of the mother’s lineage; longhouses were up to 200 feet long | Many people in these tribes were descendants of the Woodland mound builders; built timber and bark lodgings alongside rivers |
Largest settlements in the Midwest was Cahokia with 30,000 inhabitants | Iroquois Confederation: powerful political union of several tribes from the Great Lakes and New York area (Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk, and the Tuscarora) ; battled rival Native Americans as well as Europeans | Rivers and the Atlantic ocean provided a rich source of food |
Overall Diversity
Variety of landforms and climate allowed for tremendous diversity in cultures in North American Natives (prior to 1492)
Europeans often grouped these varied cultures together when each tribe had its different systems and traditions
They soon developed a shared identity as Native Americans
1.3: European Exploration in the Americas
Up until 1400s, people of the Americas traded amongst each other, but had no connection to the rest of the world
Starting in the 1400s, Europeans started to explore more for religious and economic purposes, which brought the two worlds into contact
The European Context for Exploration
Vikings from Scandinavia had visited Greenland and North America years prior, but these voyages had no lasting impact
Columbus’ voyage brought people into lasting contact with the Atlantic
Many factors that made exploration desirable in late 15th century
Changes in Thought and Technology
Renaissance: rebirth of classical learning which promoted an outburst of scientific and artistic activity in the 15th and 16th centuries
Several of the technological advancements made during this time were improvements of inventions made by others
Gunpowder (originally invented by the Chinese)
Sailing compass (originally made by the Chinese, adopted by Arab merchants)
Europeans made major improvements in shipbuilding and mapmaking
Invention of printing press in the 1450s helped spread knowledge across Europe
Religious Conflict
Later years of Renaissance were a period of intense religious zeal and conflict
Roman Catholic Church and its leader, the pope, dominated western Europe for a long time
Power was threatened by Ottoman Turks in 15th and 16th centuries (Muslims)
Also threatened by rebellious Christians who challenged the Pope’s authority
Catholic Victory in Spain
8th century: Moors (Islamic invaders from North Africa) quickly conquered most of modern-day Spain
Over the next centuries, Spanish Christians reconquered much of the land and set up independent kingdoms
2 of the largest kingdoms merged when Isabella (queen of Castile) and Ferdinand (king of Aragon) married in 1469
1492: Spanish conquered the last Moorish stronghold in Spain (Granada) under the leadership of Isabella and Ferdinand
They also funded Christopher Columbus on his historic first voyage
These events signaled new leadership, hope, and power for Europeans that followed the Roman Catholic faith
Protestant Revolt in Northern Europe
Early 1500s: certain Christians in Germany, England, France, Holland, and other Northern European countries revolted against the authority of the pope in Rome
Known as the Protestant Reformation
Conflicts between the Protestants and the Catholics led to a series of wars that killed millions in the 16th and 17th century
Also caused Roman Catholics of Spain and Portugal and Protestants of England and Holland to want to spread their version of Christianity to countries in Africa, Europe, and Asia
Religious motive to explore and colonize was added to political and economic motives
Expanding Trade
Economic motives grew from a fierce competition among European kingdoms for increased trade with Africa, India, and China
In the past route, there was a land route from Venice and Constantinople all the way to eastern China
This land route becomes blocked in 1453 when the Ottoman Turks seized Constantinople
New Routes
Challenge: finding a new way to Asian trade appeared by sailing either south along the West African coast and then east to China, or sailing west across the Atlantic ocean
Voyages were sponsored by Portugal’s Prince Henry the Navigator
Eventually succeeded in opening up a long sea route around South Africa’s Cape of Good Hope
1498: Portuguese sea captain Vasco da Gama was the first European to reach India via this route
By this time, Columbus had attempted what he thought would be a shorter route to Asia
Slave Trading
Since ancient times people in Europe, Africa, and Asia had enslaved war prisoners and other people captured in wars
15th century: Portuguese began trading for enslaved people from West Africa
They used the enslaved workers in sugar plantations on the Madeira and Azores islands on the island coast
Producing sugar with enslaved labor was so profitable that Europeans used a similar system when they made colonies in the Americas
Developing Nation-States
Europe was also changing politically in the 15th century
Small kingdoms were uniting to form larger kingdoms
Ex. Castile and Aragon to form the core of the modern country of Spain
Enormous multiethnic empires were beginning to break up
Ex. Most of the states that formed modern-day Germany were once part of the Holy Roman Empire
Replacing these small kingdoms and multiethnic empires were nation-states
Nation states: countries in which the majority of people shared both a common culture and common loyalty to a certain government
The monarchs of the emerging nation-states depended on trade to bring in needed revenues and on the church to justify their right to rule
Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain, Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, and similar monarchs of France, England, and the Netherlands
Dividing the Americas
Western European monarchs used their power to search for riches abroad and spread their version of Christianity to new land
Led to competition for control of land in the Americas
Spanish and Portuguese Claims
Spain and Portugal were the first kingdoms to claim territories in the Americas
Their claims overlapped, causing disputes
Catholic monarchs of the two nations turned to the pope to resolve their issues
1493: The pope drew a vertical, north-south line on a world map (line of demarcation)
Granted Spain all lands to the west of the line and Portugal all lands east of the line
1494: Treaty of Tordesillas: treaty where Spain and Portugal moved the pope’s line a few degrees west
Line passed through modern-day Brazil
This treaty, along with Portuguese exploration established Portuguese claim to Brazil while Spain claimed the rest of the Americas
Other European countries soon challenged these claims
English Claims
Earliest claims to territory were based on the voyages by John Cabot
He explored Newfoundland in 1497
England didn’t follow up with voyages for exploration and settlement
Other problems that they had to sort through
Queen Elizabeth I encouraged exploration and settlement during in the later 16th century
The English challenged the Spanish shipping in both the Atlantic and Pacific
Attempted to establish the Roanoke Island colony but the venture failed
French Claims
Showed interest in exploration in 1524
Sponsored a voyage by an Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazano
Trying to find the northwest passage from Americas to Asia
Also based on the voyages of Jacques Cartier in1534-1542
Explored the St. Lawrence River
Like the English, the French were also slow to develop colonies in the Atlantic
Also occupied with other things
1.4: Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest
Purpose of Columbus’s voyage: finding a sea route the lucrative trade with Asia which has been limited by long and dangerous land route
What Columbus found was of far greater importance
Christopher Columbus
Social, economic, and political conditions allowed for the idea of exploration to be supported by many in Europe
Exploration was supported by the improvements in shipbuilding and in navigations with better compasses and mapmaking
Plans to Reach Asia
One of the explorers from the Italian coast of Genoa was Christopher Columbus
Spent 8 years seeking financial support for his plan to sail West from Europe to the “Indies”
1492: (Isabella and Ferdinand) 2 Spanish monarchs who were at the height of their power defeated the Moors in Granada
Agreed to outfit 3 ships and to make Columbus governor, admiral, and victory of all the land that he would claim for Spain
After sailing from the Canary Islands on Sept. 6, Columbus landed on an island in the Bahamas on October 12
His success on reaching land brought him a burst of glory in Spain
The subsequent voyages across the Atlantic were disappointing
He found little gold, few spices , and no route to China and India
The Columbian Exchange
With the maintained contact between the Europeans and the original inhabitants of the Americas, we see something called the Columbian Exchange occurring
Columbian Exchange: the trade and transfer of plants, animals, and germs from one side of the Atlantic to the other for the first time
Europeans learned about many new plants foods such as beans, corn, sweet and white potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco
Transformed the diet of many in Eurasia
Sparked rapid population growth within Eurasia and Africa
Europeans also contracted a new disease called syphilis
People in the Americas learned about sugarcane, bluegrasses, pigs, and horses
They also learned about the wheel, iron implements, and guns
While the Columbian Exchange was beneficial to the Europeans, it was not the same way for the Native Americans
They had no immunity to the germs brought by the Europeans, which resulted in many of them dying from diseases such as smallpox and measles
As a result, the native population severely declined
The Rise of Capitalism
Population growth and and access to new resources caused an increase in trade which further caused social, political, and economic changes to occur
The system of feudalism was declined and replaced by capitalism
Capitalism: an economic system where the control of capital (money and machinery) became more important that the control of land
As trade increased the political power moved from wealthy landowners to merchants
One reason for the rise of trade was because of the eagerness of the Europeans being able to possess riches from the Americas, Africa, and Asia
However, these voyages were expensive and dangerous
To fund these expeditions in a safer way, the Europeans came up with a safer method : the joint-stock company
The joint-stock company worked like this
It was owned by many businesses as investors
If an expedition failed, the investors only lost the amount they invested in the voyage
The joint-stock company encouraged more investors, promoting economic growth
1.5: Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System
Spanish dominance was based on papal ruling (ruling made by the Pope) rather than a treaty
Led by Ferdinand and Isabella
The Spanish wealth and power increased through the explorers and conquistadores, as well as the physical labor of the enslaved Africans and Native Americans
Spanish Exploration and Conquest
Spanish supremacy and domination in the Americas was secured by
The journey across Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Núñez de Balboa
Circumnavigation of the world by one of Ferdinand Magellan’s ships
Conquests of Aztecs in Mexico by Hernán Cortés
Conquests of the Inca in Peru by Francisco Pizarro
Indian Labor
Encountered indigenous population in Mexico and Peru
Even after diseases like smallpox killed off a majority of the Native American population, millions managed to survive
Spanish took the remaining native populations into their empire
They controlled them using the encomienda system
Spain’s king granted natives who lived on a certain part of the land to individual Spaniards
Forced to work in farmlands or mines
Their efforts and products from their labor were shipped off to Spain and given to the Spanish
In return, the Spaniards would have to “take care” of the Native Americans
Enslaved African Labor
Portuguese had already proved that using enslaved Africans to grow crops was profitable
The sugar plantations on islands off the African coast was where this was proved
This provided a model for other Europeans looking for a way to strengthen their labor force
The Spanish needed to add to their labor force as enslaving Native Americans did not prove to be successful
They died from disease and brutality in slavery
The Spanish imported enslaved Africans through the asiento system
Required colonists to pay a tax to the king for each enslaved person imported to the Americas
Other Europeans also established the use of enslaved Africans as a labor force
During the colonial era, more Africans came to the Americas than Europeans
Up until the late 1800s, 10-15 million Africans were put on ships and shipped off to the Americas
10-15% died on the voyage to the Americas
This voyage was called the Middle Passage
African Resistance
Despite being transported many miles away from home and being brutally repressed, Africans resisted slavery in many ways
They would run away, sabotage work, or revolt
They would also retain aspects of African culture
Music, religion, and folkways
Spanish Caste System
The combination of Native Americans, Spaniards, and Africans created ethnically diverse colonies
Many people were also of mixed heritage
The hierarchy in this society
Pure blooded Spaniards at the top
People of mixed heritage in the middle
People of pure Native American or Black descent on the bottom
1.6: Cultural Interactions in the Americas
There are many recorded interactions between various ethnic groups in history
Romans and Africans in Classical Era
Christians and Muslims in Middle Ages
These conflicts were often violent, but small in regions and didn’t last that long
Contact between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans in the Americas was violent and lasted for a longer time. it was also on a larger scale
Europeans and Native Americans had conflicting worldviews
Monotheism VS polytheism
Most Native Americans believed in multiple deities while Europeans believed in one god
The roles of women in each society
Women had a limited role in European society while some tribes had leadership positions that women took up
The use of legal documents VS tradition for making land decisions
European Treatment of Native Americans
Europeans generally viewed Native Americans as inferior people that could be exploited for economic gain, converted to Christianity, and used as military allies
Various approaches were used for ruling Native Americans and operating colonies
Spanish Policy
Subjugated Native Americans, however, the treatment of Native Americans was debated by Spanish scholars
Bartolomé de Las Casas
Spanish priest who dissented from the views of most Europeans towards Native Americans
Though he had owned land and slaves in the West Indies and fought wars against the Native Americans, he eventually advocated for better treatment of the Native Americans
Persuaded the king to pass the New Laws of 1542
These laws ended slavery for the Native Americans, halted forced Native American labor, and started to put a stop to the encomienda system
However, conservative Spaniards, who profited off of this system, successfully got the king to repeal certain parts of these new laws
Valladolid Debate
Debate of the role of Native Americans was a formal debate in 1550-1551 in Valladolid, Spain
Two sides to this debate
Las Casas argued that Native Americans were humans as well, so enslaving them was morally wrong and unjustified
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda believed that Native Americans were less than human, which meant that they benefitted from the encomienda system
Neither side was able to convince the audience well
Las Casas was unable to gain equal treatment for Native Americans, but he was able to establish the basic arguments for the justice of Native Americans
English Policy
The English settled in areas with no large native population that could provide forced labor
When the English arrived on the scene in the 1600s, most of the Native population was already killed off by various diseases
Many English colonists came in families rather that single young men
marriage with natives was less common
In Massachusetts, the English and the Native Americans coexisted and shared many things and ideas with each other
Natives taught the English how to grow new crops
Also showed them how to hunt in the forests
Traded furs for English manufactured goods such as iron tools and weapons
These peaceful relations soon gave way to issues and warfare
Most Europeans showed no respect towards the Native American culture, viewing their cultures as “savage”
Native Americans felt threatened by the English taking their land and supporting their growing population
They expelled the natives rather than subjugating them
French Policy
The French viewed the Native Americans as potential economic and military allies
Compared to the English and Spanish, the French seemed to have a better relationship with the Native Americans
They built trading posts throughout the St. Lawrence Valley, the Great Lakes region, and the Mississippi river
They exchanged French goods for furs at these posts
The French posed less threat to the native population due to the fewer number of colonists, farms, and towns
The French soldiers also assisted the Hurons to fight against the Iroquois, their traditional enemy
Survival Strategies by Native Americans
As European settlements began to increase in number, Native Americans responded to protect themselves and their cultures
One strategy was to ally with a European power
Ex. several tribes in Mexico allied with Spain to help them win their freedom from the Aztecs in the 1500s
Other tribes migrated west to get away from settlers, which would further lead to conflict between other Native Americans living in that area already
Native Americans did not identify as a larger group that included all tribes
Regardless of how each tribe dealt with European invasion, they would never return to their life prior to 1492
The Role of Africans in America
They contributed a third cultural tradition in the Americas
Their experience growing rice made rice an important crop in the South Carolinian and Louisiana colonies
Musical rhythms and singing styles that shaped the development of American music
The banjo would be closely associated with the American culture in the southeast by the 19th century
Europeans justified slavery in many ways
Some used religion to justify slavery, excerpts from the Bible
Slavery soon became exclusive to Africans, which lead to Europeans arguing that Africans were biologically inferior, which gave them a “justification” for slavery
Similar to the argument Sepúlveda used regarding Native Americans