What is the difference between learning and memory? (definitions)

1. Learning - acquiring new information or skills through experience, study, or instruction. Change in behavior, knowledge, or understanding, resulting from experience or practice.

2. Memory - the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information in the brain.

Main kinds of memory: declarative & non-declarative

1. Declarative - memory involves conscious recollection of facts and events-explicit

   1. Episodic memory

   2. Semantic Memory

2. Non-declarative - not conscious or intentional. Implicit memory. Various types of learning and memory do not require conscious effort.

What is the difference between long- and short-term memory?

1. Long - holds information for an extended period of time - permament

2. Short - holds information for a short period of time- working

The case of H.M.: What kind of memory loss was he suffering from? What kind of brain damage led to his amnesia?

1. Severe amnesia as a result of bilateral medial temporal lobe resection surgery.

2. This was a treatment for epilepsy

3. Development of theories of memory and amnesia, highlighted the importance of the hippocampus in declarative memory.

What kinds of memory systems are spared in cases of amnesia like H.M.’s? (be familiar with specific examples of tasks from the book and notes).

What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?

1. Anterograde - affects the ability to form new memories after a specific event

   1. May have intact memories of events that occurred before the event that caused the amnesia

   2. Short memory is preserved

2. Retrograde - affects the ability to recall memories of events that occurred before the event

   1. Difficulty recalling events or memories from their past, but their ability to form new memories may be intact

   2. Short memory is preserved

How can the damage to the medial diencephalon cause amnesia?

1. Medial diencephalon includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. Both play a critical role in memory function

2. Damage can cause amnesia by disrupting normal functioning of memory circuits in brain

What kind of brain damage is observed in patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome? What type of memory deficits do these patients have?

1. Amnesia caused by thiamine deficiency and alcoholism

   1. Noticed in the medial diencephalon

   2. Noticed in the frontal lobes and cerebellum

2. Noticed executive dysfunction, language deficits, and visuospatial deficits

Can brain damage destroy autobiographical memories while sparing general memories?

1. Yes

What is the difference between skill learning, priming, and conditioning?

1. Skill - process of acquiring and improving a skill through practice and repetition

2. Priming - the phenomenon whereby exposure to a stimulus influences our response to a subsequent stimulus.

3. Conditioning- the process of learning to associate a particular stimulus with a particular response through repeated exposure to that stimulus.

What is the difference between free recall, cued recall, and recognition memory?

1. Free recall- recall as many items as possible from a list or cue

2. Cued recall- given cues or prompts to help recall specific items from a list

3. Recognition memory - asked to identify whether a presented item has been encountered previously or is new

What brain mechanisms are involved in memory encoding, storage, and retrieval?

What is semantic memory? How does it differ from episodic memory?

1. Part of long term memory that deals with the meanings of words and concepts.

2. Episodic memory- memory for specific events or experiences that occur at particular times and places. MORE PERSONAL

Is semantic memory affected in amnesia?

1. Memory is relatively well preserved, not dependent on medial temporal lobe structures

What brain systems are presumed to support semantic memory?

1. Neocortex (temporal lobes and prefrontal cortex), thalamus, and basal ganglia

What does the term ‘memory consolidation’ refer to?

1. New memories become stabilized and strengthened over time. Become resistant to interference or disruption

What is the difference between synaptic and system consolidation?

1. Synaptic - strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons. Rapid learning and can last for hours to days

2. System consolidation refers to the gradual transfer of memories from the hippocampus to the neocortex, which takes place over weeks, months, or even years. During system consolidation, memories become less dependent on the hippocampus and more reliant on neocortical regions for retrieval.

19. What is long-term potentiation? How does it relate to the function of the hippocampus?

20. cellular process by which synaptic connections between neurons are strengthened, leading to an increase in the effectiveness of neuronal communication

21. activation of NMDA receptors on postsynaptic neurons, which leads to an influx of calcium ions and subsequent changes in synaptic strength through the insertion of AMPA receptors

What kind of changes at the synaptic level support learning and memory?

1. Learning and memory involve changes at the synaptic level, including changes in the strength and number of synapses between neurons, as well as changes in neurotransmitter release and receptor expression. These changes are thought to be mediated by various cellular and molecular mechanisms, including LTP and long-term depression (LTD), which involve the modulation of synaptic efficacy through changes in protein synthesis and gene expression

21. What is the function of medial temporal structures for declarative memory?

22. The medial temporal structures, particularly the hippocampus, are critical for declarative memory, which includes memory for facts and events. The hippocampus is involved in the encoding and retrieval of declarative memories, as well as their consolidation and integration with other cortical regions

23. Damage can lead to anterograde amnesia.

22. What is the contribution of hippocampal mechanisms to spatial memory?

23. neurons that fire in response to specific locations in the environment, and these cells are thought to play a key role in spatial navigation and memory.

24. Damage to the hippocampus can result in severe deficits in spatial memory, including impairments in navigation and the ability to remember the locations of objects.

What brain structures support skill memory, repetition priming, and conditioning?

1. Basal ganglia: The basal ganglia play a critical role in skill learning, particularly in the formation of motor habits.

2. Neocortex: The neocortex is the outer layer of the brain and is responsible for higher cognitive functions, such as perception, thought, and language. It plays a critical role in repetition priming by facilitating the processing of stimuli that have been previously encountered.

3. Amygdala: The amygdala plays a central role in fear conditioning, which is a type of classical conditioning that involves learning to associate a neutral stimulus with a fearful or aversive stimulus.

4. Cerebellum: The cerebellum is important for the acquisition and retention of classical conditioning, particularly eyeblink conditioning.

Summary graph: Brain regions involved in learning and memory

1. Hippocampus: encoding and consolidation of declarative memory

2. Amygdala: emotional memory, including fear conditioning

3. Basal ganglia: procedural/skill memory, habit learning, and conditioning

4. Cerebellum: motor skill learning and classical conditioning

5. Prefrontal cortex: working memory, executive functions, and long-term memory retrieval

6. Medial temporal lobe: declarative memory

7. Perirhinal cortex: object recognition memory

8. Parahippocampal cortex: spatial memory

How do young and older adults differ in terms of their dependence on recall or recognition memory strategies? What kinds of brain structures differentially support these strategies?

1. Older adults tend to rely more on recognition memory strategies compared to recall strategies, whereas young adults tend to use both strategies equally.

2. The prefrontal cortex and hippocampus have been found to support these memory strategies differently. The prefrontal cortex is more active during recognition memory tasks, while the hippocampus is more active during recall tasks.

26. What is the main symptom of semantic dementia? What kind of brain damage is associated with the disorder?

27. The main symptom of semantic dementia is the progressive loss of semantic memory, which leads to a loss of knowledge about the world and the meaning of words.

What is the difference between attention and arousal?

1. Attention- process of selectively focusing on a stimulus

2. Arousal- state of alertness and readiness for action

What brain system is responsible for maintaining overall arousal levels?

1. RAS - retiuclar activating system in the brainstem

What is the role of the cholinergic system in arousal and attention?

1. Basal forebrain neurons Project neurons to the thalamus, cortex, and other brain regions to increase activity levels

What is the role of the noradrenergic system (in particular the locus coeruleus) to arousal?

1. Critical for arousal and can enhance attention and cognitive processing

Structures of the thalamus critical for arousal

1. Intralaminar nuclei, midline nuclei, and reticular nucleus are critical for arousal

   1. Receive input from RAS and project to various brain regions

What is the role of the thalamus in sustained attention?

1. Pulvinar nucleus, regulating sensory processing and filtering out irrelevant information. Dysfunction can lead to attentional deficits in neurological and psychiatric disorders

What is the difference between top-down (or endogenous) and bottom-up (or exogenous) attentional selection?

1. Top down - intentional and voluntary allocation of attention based on individual goals, expectations and prior knowledge

2. Bottom-up attention, also known as exogenous attention, refers to the automatic and involuntary allocation of attention based on salient sensory stimuli in the environment.

What are the main tenets of early and late selection models of attention and what is the evidence in favor of each (specifically EEG & ERP evidence)?

1. Early selection models of attention propose that sensory information is filtered early in processing based on physical characteristics, such as location or intensity, before being subjected to higher-level processing. Late selection models propose that all sensory information is processed to a high level before being filtered based on relevance and attentional goals. EEG and ERP evidence has supported both models, with early selection evidenced by the detection of early sensory processing markers in ERP components and late selection evidenced by later processing markers such as the P3 component.

What is the role of the superior colliculi in selective attention?

1. superior colliculi in the midbrain play a critical role in selective attention by directing visual attention to salient stimuli in the environment. They receive input from various sensory and cognitive systems and project to the thalamus and cortex to modulate their activity levels

What is the role of the thalamus in selective attention?

1. thalamus also plays a critical role in selective attention by regulating the flow of sensory information to the cortex based on relevance and attentional goals. Thalamic nuclei such as the pulvinar are particularly important in directing attention to relevant stimuli while inhibiting irrelevant information

Top-down attention modulation:The intraparietal sulcus

1. intraparietal sulcus (IPS) in the parietal cortex is involved in top-down attention modulation by directing attention to specific locations in space based on the individual's goals and expectations. It receives input from various sensory and cognitive systems and projects to the superior colliculi and other brain regions to modulate attentional processing.

Is there a difference between the contributions of the left and right hemispheres in attention?

1. The left hemisphere is more involved in directing attention to specific details and features of stimuli

2. The right hemisphere is more involved in processing global information and detecting changes in the environment.

What is the role of the superior parietal lobe in selective attention?

1. selective attention by directing attention to specific locations in space and integrating sensory information from multiple modalities.

The anterior cingulate cortex and its role in selective attention and monitoring.

1. selective attention and monitoring by detecting and resolving conflicts between attentional goals and interfering stimuli. It also modulates the activity of other brain regions involved in attention and cognitive control

Top-down vs. bottom-up attentional systems and the brain structures that support them (dorsal frontoparietal network vs. right temporoparietal network).

1. top-down attentional systems, such as the dorsal frontoparietal network, are involved in voluntary and goal-directed attention, while bottom-up attentional systems, such as the right temporoparietal network, are involved in automatic and stimulus-driven attention. Brain structures that support these networks include the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and superior temporal gyrus

What are the main symptoms of hemineglect?

1. characterized by the failure to attend to stimuli in the contralesional (opposite) side of space. Symptoms may include ignoring objects, people, or parts of their own body on the neglected side

What kind of brain damage is associated with hemineglect?

1. associated with damage to the right parietal cortex or right temporoparietal junction.

What types of tasks are typically used to test the behavior of patients with hemineglect?

1. test the behavior of patients with hemineglect include line bisection tasks, cancellation tasks, and copying tasks

What is anosagnosia?

1. patient is unaware of their own deficits or illness. This may occur in patients with hemineglect or other neurological disorders

What is simultagnosia? What kind of damage is associated with it?

1. patient is unable to perceive more than one object or scene at a time. It is typically associated with damage to the parietal cortex

What do we mean by the term ‘executive function’?

1. Cognitive functions involved in goal-directed behavior

What are the main anatomical divisions of the prefrontal cortex in humans?

1. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitfrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex

What is the function of the orbitofrontal cortex?

1. Reward processing, decision-making, and social behavior

What did the case of Phineas Gage contribute to our understanding of the function of the orbitofrontal cortex?

1. our understanding of the function of the orbitofrontal cortex by demonstrating that damage to this region can result in significant changes in personality and social behavior

What is perseveration? What do we define as utilization behavior (or environmental dependence)?

1. persistent repetition of a response or behavior despite changing circumstances. Utilization behavior, or environmental dependence, refers to a tendency to interact with objects in the environment in a context-inappropriate manner

What are the consequences of medial prefrontal cortex damage?

1. social behavior impairments, apathy, and executive dysfunction

What is the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in working memory?

1. working memory, planning, and cognitive flexibility

What kinds of tasks allow us to measure working memory in humans?

1. n-back task, delayed match-to-sample task, and digit span task

What kinds of tasks allow us to measure planning, decision-making, task shifting, and inhibition? What brain regions are associated with performance on these tasks?

1. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Tower of London task, Stroop task, and go/no-go task. Brain regions associated with performance on these tasks include the DLPFC, ACC, and OFC

What is the role of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in error monitoring?

1. detecting conflicts between different response options and signaling the need for adaptive control

What is Broca’s aphasia (or non-fluent aphasia) and what kind of brain injury is associated with it?

1. Language disorder characterized by difficulty expressing language

2. damage to Broca's area, a region in the left hemisphere of the brain that is responsible for language production.

What is Wernicke’s aphasia (or fluent aphasia) and what kind of brain injury is associated with it?

1. language disorder characterized by difficulty in understanding language and producing meaningful speech

2. damage to Wernicke's area, a region in the left hemisphere of the brain that is responsible for language comprehension

What is global aphasia and what kind of brain injury is associated with it?

1. severe form of aphasia that affects both language production and comprehension.

2. caused by extensive damage to the left hemisphere of the brain, including Broca's and Wernicke's areas

What are the main tenets of the Wernicke-Geshwind model of aphasia?

1. Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and the arcuate fasciculus, which connects the two areas

What is the role of the arcuate fasciculus in language production and comprehension?

1. bundle of nerve fibers that connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area

2. thought to play a critical role in language production and comprehension by transmitting information between these two regions

What are the main assumptions of the motor theory of language?

1. comprehension of language is closely tied to the perception and production of speech movements

2. brain processes language by simulating the movements involved in speech production.

Does damage to Broca’s area cause Broca’s aphasia?

1. non-fluent aphasia

2. Other regions in the brain that are involved in language processing can also contribute to the development of this type of aphasia

Does damage to Wernicke’s area cause Wernicke’s aphasia?

1. fluent aphasia, it is not the only cause.

2. Other regions in the brain that are involved in language processing can also contribute to the development of this type of aphasia

What part of the brain is associated with the identification of written words?

1. left hemisphere of the brain, particularly the visual word form area (VWFA), located in the occipitotemporal cortex

What is the role of the angular gyrus in reading?

1. parietal lobe of the brain that is involved in reading

2. linking written words with spoken language

What was the main finding in pre-surgical studies involving the Wada test?

1. language functions are typically localized to the left hemisphere of the brain in most people

What are the main tenets of some early theories regarding laterality?

1. different cognitive functions are localized in different hemispheres of the brain

2. left hemisphere was thought to be dominant for language and analytical reasoning,

3. right hemisphere was thought to be dominant for spatial processing and emotional processing

What is the relationship between handedness and language lateralization in the left hemisphere?

1. majority of people have left-hemisphere language lateralization, regardless of handedness

2. eft-handed individuals are more likely to have atypical lateralization, with some having right-hemisphere language dominance or bilateral language representation

Are there any anatomical correlates of hemispheric specialization in humans?

1. the left hemisphere tends to have a larger planum temporale, which is involved in language processing

2. right hemisphere tends to have a larger parietal cortex, which is involved in spatial processing

What do studies of callosotomy patients (who have disconnected cerebral hemispheres) reveal about the individual processing specializations of each hemisphere?

1. who have had their corpus callosum severed to treat severe epilepsy, reveal that each hemisphere has individual processing specializations. For example, the left hemisphere is better at processing verbal information, while the right hemisphere is better at processing spatial information.

What is the ‘right ear advantage’?

1. people tend to be better at processing verbal information when it is presented to the right ear (which is connected to the left hemisphere) compared to the left ear (which is connected to the right hemisphere). This supports the idea of left-hemisphere dominance for language processing

Are there differences between patients with left- and right-hemisphere lesions in terms of their performance on tasks that require global vs. local processing?

1. Patients with left hemisphere lesions tend to perform better on tasks that require local processing, such as identifying individual letters in a word

2. patients with right hemisphere lesions tend to perform better on tasks that require global processing, such as identifying the overall shape of a figure

What kind of evidence exists that would support a special role of the right hemisphere for spatial perception and face perception?

1. Patients with right hemisphere lesions often show deficits in spatial perception, such as difficulty with navigation and judging distances, and they also show deficits in face perception, such as difficulty recognizing faces and emotional expressions

What do patients with hemispherectomies reveal about the role of the left hemisphere in language?

1. Patients who have undergone a left hemispherectomy typically show severe language deficits, while patients who have undergone a right hemispherectomy often show little to no language deficits

Michael Gazzaniga refers to the left hemisphere as ‘the interpreter.’ Why? Does the left hemisphere have a special role in making sense of our experiences?

1. Michael Gazzaniga refers to the left hemisphere as "the interpreter" because it is involved in making sense of our experiences and creating a coherent narrative out of them. The left hemisphere is specialized for language, logical reasoning, and analytical thinking, which are all important for creating a narrative and making sense of the world around us. However, it is important to note that both hemispheres work together to create a unified sense of self and perception of the world