Studying Human Development

8.1 Research Designs

• Human Development: the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death

• Longitudinal Design: research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time

• Cross-Sectional Design: research design in which several different participant age groups are studied at one particular point in time

• Cross-Sequential Design: research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but are also followed and assessed longitudinally

• Cohort Effect: the impact on development occurring when a group of people shares a common time period or common life experience

8.2 Nature and Nurture

• Nature: the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

• Nurture: the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

8.3 The Basic Building Blocks of Development

• Genetics: the science of inherited traits

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism

• Gene: section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements

• Chromosomes: tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA

• Dominant: referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait

• Recessive: referring to a gene that only influences that expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene

Prenatal Development

8.4 Fertilization

• Ovum: the female sex cell, or egg

• Fertilization: the union of the ovum and sperm

• Zygote: cell resulting from uniting of ovum and sperm

• Monozygotic Twins: identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

• Dizygotic Twins: often called fraternal twins, occurring when two individual eggs get fertilized by separate sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

• Bioethics: the study of ethical and moral issues brought about by new advances in biology and medicine

8.5 Three Stages of Development

• Germinal Period: first 2 weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining

• Embryo: name for the developing organism from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization

• Embryonic Period: the period from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.

• Critical Periods: times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant.

• Teratogen: any factor that can cause a birth defect.

• Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD): the physical and mental defects caused by consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.

• Fetal Period: the time from about 8 weeks after conception until the birth of the baby.

• Fetus: name for the developing organism from 8 weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby

Infancy and Childhood Development

8.6 Physical Development

• Reflexes

• Motor Development

• Brain Development

• Sensory Development

8.7 Cognitive Development

• Cognitive Development: the development of thinking, problem-solving, and memory

• Schemes: in this case, a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events

• Sensorimotor Stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment

• Object Permanence: the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

• Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world

• Egocentrism: the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes

• Centration: in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

• Conservation: in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature

• Irreversibility: in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

• Concrete Operations Stage: Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking

• Formal Operations Stage: Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking

• Scaffolding: process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Vygotsky’s concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher

8.8 Psychosocial Development

• Temperament: the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth, such as “easy,” “difficult,” and “slow to warm up;” the enduring characteristics with which each person is born

• Attachment: the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver

• Self-Concept: the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important significant people in one’s life

Adolescence

8.9 Physical Development

• Adolescence: the period of life from about age 13 to the early 20s, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult

• Puberty: The physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak

8.10 Cognitive Development

• Personal Fable: type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

• Imaginary Audience: type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are

8.11 Psychological Development

• Identity Versus Role Confusion: stage of personality development in which the adolescent must ding a consistent sense of self

Adulthood and Aging

8.12 Physical Development: Use It or Lose It

• Emerging Adulthood: a time from late adolescence through the 20s referring to those who are childless, do not live in their own home, and are not earning enough money to be independent, mainly found in developed countries

• Menopause: The cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability

• Andropause: gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of middle-aged males

8.13 Cognitive Development

• Changes in Memory

8.14 Psychosocial Development

• Intimacy: an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self

• Generativity: providing guidance to one’s children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteer work

• Authoritarian Parenting: style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

• Permissive Parenting: style of parenting in which parent makes few if any, demands on a child’s behavior

• Permissive Neglectful: permissive parenting in which parent is uninvolved with child or child’s behavior

• Permissive Indulgent: permissive parenting in which parent is so involved that children are allowed to behave without set limits

• Authoritative Parenting: style of parenting in which parent combines warmth and affection with firm limits on a child’s behavior

• Ego Integrity: sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life possessing the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego.

8.15 Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging

• Activity Theory: theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby

8.16 Stages of Death and Dying

• 5 stages theorized by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross:

  • Denial

  • Anger

  • Bargaining

  • Depression

  • Acceptance