Terms for Essay and MC

attitude

A writer’s intellectual position or emotion regarding the subject of the writing.

concrete detail

details and evidence that relate to the topic

descriptive detail

detail appealing to visual sense (or other senses), look for writer’s sensory description

devices

figures of speech, syntax, diction, and other stylistic elements that collectively produce a particular artistic effect

language

how diction, syntax, figurative language, and sentence structure create a cumulative effect

narrative devices

tools of storyteller (also used in nonfiction), such as ordering events so that they build to a climactic moment or withholding information until a crucial or appropriate moment when revealing it creates a desired effect

narrative technique

style of telling the “story” (even if passage is nonfiction)

persuasive devices

words in the passage that have strong connotations, words that intensify the emotional effect. analyze how these words complement the writer’s argument as it builds logically (often used in context of speeches)

persuasive essay

writing in which you present coherent argument in which the evidence builds to a logical and relevant conclusion. for stronger argument, the writing appeals to the audience’s emotion or ethical standards

resources of language

all the devices of composition available to a writer, such as diction, syntax, sentence structure, and figures of speech. cumulative effect of a work is produced from the writer by using this

rhetorical features

tools of rhetoric, such as tone, diction, and imagery.

rhetorical structure

refers to how a passage is constructed. if asked to consider this, look at paragraph’s organization and how writer combines images, details, or arguments to serve his/her purpose

sentence structure

types of sentences author uses, discuss effect of this

stylistic devices

all of the elements in language that contribute to style, such as diction, syntax, tone, attitude, figures of speech, connotations, and repetitions

allegory

device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning (meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence)

alliteration

repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea shells”), can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, and/or supply a musical sound.

allusion

direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art

ambiguity

multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

analogy

similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them

antecedent

word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun

aphorism

terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.), can be memorable summation of the author’s point

apostrophe

figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love, effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity.

Example: William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee.”

atmosphere

emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the it. frequently foreshadows events

clause

grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb.

independent clause

expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence

dependent clause

cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause

colloquial/colloquialism

use of slang or informalities in speech or writing (includes local or regional dialects). not generally acceptable for formal writing. give a work a conversational, familiar tone.

conceit

fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects that displays intellectual cleverness due to the unusual comparison being made.

connotation

nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

denotation

strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color

diction

Related to style, refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their corrections, clearness, or effectiveness

didactic

literally means “teaching” from Greek meaning; these kind of works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles. (preachy teachy)

euphemism

From the Greek for “good speech,” more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept; may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement

Example: Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse”

extended metaphor

metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work

figurative language

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid

generic conventions

term describes traditions for each genre; these conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate between an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing

genre

major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama, and the term also refers to the subdivisions of these basic divisions. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc.

homily

term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

hyperbole

figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement; often have a comic effect but can also have serious effect; often produces irony at the same time

imagery

sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions; on physical level, this term relates to the five senses; pay attention to how it is created and what its purpose is

inference/infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented

invective

emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

irony/ironic

contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really means; difference between what appears to be and what actually is true.

verbal irony

words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) true meaning

situational irony

events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen.

dramatic irony

facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work

loose sentence

type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses; A work containing many of these sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational.

metaphor

figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity; makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful

metonymy

term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it

Example: A news release that claims “the White House declared” rather than “the President declared”

mood

term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker’s attitude. second meaning is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect it (the term). In this usage, it is similar to tone and atmosphere.

narrative

The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events. 

onomatopoeia

figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sound of words

oxymoron

From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox.

paradox

statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some idea of truth or validity

Example: The first scene of Macbeth closes with the witches’ cryptic remark “Fair is foul, and foul is fair . . . .”

parallelism

referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one another.” refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. effects of this term are numerous, but frequently, they act as an organizing force to attract the reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

parody

work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, this term distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original.

pedantic

adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

periodic sentence

sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. effect of this term is to add emphasis and structural variety

personification

figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions; used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

point of view

perspective from which a story is told; two general divisions of point of view and many subdivisions within those: first and third person

first person narrator

tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist (the hero or heroine), a participant (a character in a secondary role), or an observer (a character who merely watches the action).

third person narrator

relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” two main subdivisions: omniscient and limited omniscient

third person omniscient

the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and thinks at any given moment.

third person limited omniscient

presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters.

predicate adjective

One type of subject complement—an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.

Example: in the sentence “My boyfriend is tall, dark, and handsome,” the group “tall, dark, and handsome” of the term describes “boyfriend.”

predicate nominative

second type of subject complement—a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.

Example: in the sentence “Abe Lincoln was a man of integrity,” the example of the term is “man of integrity,” as it renames Abe Lincoln.

prose

One of the major divisions of genre; refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms, because they are written in ordinary language and most closely resemble everyday speech. Technically, anything that isn’t poetry or drama is this term. Therefore, all passages in the AP language exam are this.

repetition

duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern. When this term is poorly done, it bores, but when it’s well done, it links and emphasizes ideas while allowing the reader the comfort of recognizing something familiar.

rhetoric

From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

rhetorical modes

flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. Four most common of this term are exposition, argumentation, description, narration

exposition (expository writing)

purpose of this is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion

argumentation

purpose is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader (persuasive is a type of this writing but has an additional aim of urging some form of action)

description

purpose is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described.

narration

purpose is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events

sarcasm

From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something; may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements intend to ridicule; can be witty and insightful when done well; when poorly done, it’s simply cruel.

satire

work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule; best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing; can be recognized through irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm; effects of this are varied, but if it is well done, then it is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. 

semantics

branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

style

consideration of this has two purposes: 1 evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices 2 Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors

subject complement

word (with accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it or (2) describing it. The former is technically called a predicate nominative, the latter a predicate adjective

subordinate clause

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, it cannot stand alone; also called a dependent clause because depends on a main clause, sometimes called an independent clause, to complete its meaning; Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses—for example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how, and that.

syllogism

From the Greek for “reckoning together,” is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. Its conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid

Example:

major premise: All men are mortal.
minor premise: Socrates is a man.
conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

symbol/symbolism

Generally, anything that represents, stands for, something else. Usually is something concrete—such as an object, action, character or scene—that represents something more abstract. However, can be more complex. One system classifies these in three categories: natural, conventional, and literary

syntax

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences; a group of words, not individual word

theme

central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life

thesis

(expository writing) sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition; usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven it

tone

Similar to mood, it describes the author’s attitude toward his or her material, the audience, or both. It is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying the author’s usage of it. Some words describing it are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, and somber.

transition

word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, these effectively signal a shift from one idea to another; few commonly used of these words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, and on the contrary.

understatement

ironic minimizing of fact, presents something as less signed that it is, effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic, opposite of hyperbole

wit

In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. This statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. It usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, it originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally (in the early seventeenth century), it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy.