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1533- Elizabeth is born
She spent her childhood with servants and her governess as she was cut off from her father. She was educated and mothered by Catherine Parr.
1534- English reformation under Henry VIII
Martin Luther was a German monk who founded a new ‘Protestant’ church that opposed the Pope
1549- Book of Common Prayer in English under Edward VI
Edward was Protestant
1558- Elizabeth comes to power
Issue of invasion
She had to be careful about toying with the idea of marriage too much in case she upset another country.
All the countries around England (France, Spain, Scotland) were Catholic and could unite to overpower her from all directions. Philip of Spain might organise invasion if Elizabeth made England protestant and France had troops in Scotland as MQOS was married to the French heir which posed a threat to English security. In 1558, England lost Calais.
There was not enough money for a full-time army for protection from invasion but Mary had increased the navy which protected the coastline.
Issue of female monarch reputation
Mary had burnt over 200 heretics at the stake and had gained a reputation for being cruel and ruthless. The English resisted a female monarch because Mary had given them a bad reputation.
Issue of religion
Catholics believed she was illegitimate due to disbelief in divorce. They saw Mary Queen of Scots as the rightful Queen of England so when she claimed this in 1558, they supported her claim.
The country was divided by religion- the North was Catholic, and she could face a rebellion.
She had inherited many powerful noble Catholic advisors from Mary and had to be wary of this- she needed them under her control and if she let them go, she could face a rebellion. These families also believed that Churches should be highly decorated and services should be in Latin.
1558- Puritans returned from exile. They put pressure on her to make the Church stricter and prosecute Catholics.
Issue of economics
She needed to raise taxes due to debts of £300 000 that she inherited from Henry, Mary and Edward’s wars and Henry’s borrowing from Antwerp dealers at an interest rate of 14% but the English were poor and raising taxes would make her unpopular and she could face a rebellion. Debt also made her look poor, meant she could not reward loyal followers and meant she had to pay loans back quickly to avoid high interest rates.
The wool market collapsed in the early 1550s- prices increased. Ordinary people could afford less for their money and coinage contained less gold due to it being melted down by the government- this harmed trade with other countries and increased prices further. Land owners kept sheep instead of crops which resulted in fewer jobs.
There was not enough money for a full-time army for protection from invasion but Mary had increased the navy which protected the coastline and increased income from rents, customs, duties and fines.
Issue of marriage and relations with other countries
If she married within England, she would cause another civil war but if she married a foreign power, she was essentially giving them control over England.
Philip of Spain had been married to Mary but now wanted to marry Elizabeth. He was the most powerful ruler in Europe.
Women were regarded as weak and inferior to men-she was expected to marry and share the burden of power as soon as possible.
Issue of succession
She needed an heir to continue Tudor dynasty but needed to marry to do this which would cause tension. As she was seen as illegitimate, she would risk excommunication from the Pope.
Protestants were relieved Mary was no longer Queen and wanted her to secure the Protestant future of England.
Issue of succession
She needed an heir to continue Tudor dynasty but needed to marry to do this which would cause tension. As she was seen as illegitimate, she would risk excommunication from the Pope.
Protestants were relieved Mary was no longer Queen and wanted her to secure the Protestant future of England.
1574- Crown is out of debt due to Elizabeth cutting back on her household expenses and selling land.
Royal Court
The Royal Court was located wherever Elizabeth was and consisted of 500 nobles and officials.
Personal monarchy meant these people wanted to get close to her and influence her.
She inherited Royal Palaces where she could hold Court, such as the secure Tower of London and Windsor Castle during times of crisis.
Progresses
Progresses were when she would travel with her Court to homes of the nobility.
They were used to show off her wealth and power and are described as ‘major public relations exercises’.
They allowed her to build a relationship with her people and flatter the nobles chosen to host her.
She could appear goddess-like to her subjects in her finery and they improved her public image.
They allowed her to live in luxury at no expense to her.
They allowed her to escape the Plague and allow her houses to be cleaned before her return.
Visiting the Catholic North would be dangerous.
They presented an easy opportunity to attempt to assassinate her.
Patronage
The Privy Chamber was a crucial power hub during King’s reigns but this changed as it was staffed by women during Elizabeth’s reign.
This led to the creation of patronage- the act of giving the Queen’s favourite men important roles to bring wealth and prestige to each individual.
Patronage created intense competition and rivalries- everyone stayed loyal to Elizabeth as she had the power to give them important roles and put them above each other.
It ensured the Court remained a political centre by making Elizabeth the heart of the political system.
It was highly corrupt and if people decided they wanted to do something different, the whole system would collapse.
Pricy Council
The Privy Council coordinated finances and law, including regional bodies such as the Council Chamber.
It issued instructions to local officials.
It consisted of members of the gentry, nobility and Church whom Elizabeth could change as she chose.
They met daily, although not always with the Queen.
They advised and directed policy and guided parliament on her behalf despite Elizabeth having complete control.
She could ignore them and often did, but they had the force of the law.
Parliament
Parliament was made up of the House of Commons (450 MPs elected by wealthy landowners, merchants and lawyers) and the House of Lords (non-elected body of 90 lords, bishops and judges).
The monarch decided when/how long Parliament meetings were if laws or taxes were necessary.
Parliament only met 13 times in Elizabeth’s reign and did not meet for a period of 26 years.
It approved taxes, turned policies into laws and dealt with religious matters and social policy and discussed Elizabeth’s safety.
Elizabeth found Parliament annoying but necessary.
The break from Rome meant laws passed by Parliament were important.
In 1559, Elizabeth undid Mary’s Catholic restoration and created a new Protestant Church.
Debt meant Elizabeth had to rely on keeping Parliament on side to allow her to raise taxes.
She asked to raise taxes in 11 of 13 sessions of parliament.
Catholic ministers remained from Mary’s reign.
Women were not welcome in Parliament.
Parliament had a significant amount of power.
438 acts were passed in total.
In 1563 and 1566, the House of Commons raised the issue of marriage, angering Elizabeth.
The acts of 1598 and 1601 related to poor relief.
From 1563-66, a Puritan group attempted religious reform.
Sir William Cecil- 1520-1598
1558- Secretary of State
1571- Lord Burghley
1572- Lord Treasurer
Moderate protestant, member of Lincolnshire gentry
Intelligent and diligent
MP, member of Edward VI’s council
Wanted to avoid war and unite through moderate policies
Spoke his mind
Relied on by Elizabeth due to loyalty
Replaced by son Robert
Sir Francis Walsingham- 1532-1590
1558- MP
1568- started working with the government
1573- Privy Council
1577- knighted
Fervent Puritan who fled into exile during Mary’s reign
Language ability and foreign contacts made him useful
Clashed with Cecil and got along with Dudley
In charge of Elizabethan Secret Service and uncovered numerous plots
Robert Dudley- 1533-1588
1562- Privy Council
1564- Earl of Leicester
Radical puritan who spent Mary’s reign in the Tower of London
Rumours of romance between him and Elizabeth as they were childhood friends
Master of the House- responsible for Elizabeth’s safety
Argued with Cecil about secession, religion and foreign policy
Sir Christopher Hatton- 1540-1591
1587- Lord Chancellor
Moderate protestant who hated Puritans and sympathised with Catholics
Impressed Elizabeth with his dancing and became Privy Chamber and Captain of the Queen’s bodyguard
Loyal, organised progresses
Elected to Parliament many times
Small pox reignited debates about secession as they believed the Queen was going to die and a succession crisis would have occurred. Claims to the throne:
Suffolk- Protestant
Henry VIII’s will said to pass the throne to his sister’s descendants.
Lady Jane Grey was said sister’s granddaughter but she was dead so Catherine and Mary were potential heirs.
Catherine married and got pregnant without Elizabeth’s permission so was locked in the Tower of London and her children were named illegitmate.
Mary had married without permission and was placed under house arrest.
Stuart- Catholic
MQOS descended from Henry VIII’s other sister.
Elizabeth did not want to name her as heir as she was Catholic and raised in France.
James VI had the best claim when Elizabeth died as he was the great great grandson of Elizabeth’s aunt.
The matter was settled by Cecil keeping communication open with James to facilitate an easy transition, which succeeded.
Robert Devereux, son of Elizabeth’s cousin Lettice Knollys
Rival of Cecil
Elizabeth felt he rivaled her for popularity
Had monopoly on sweet wine
1596- crushed the Spanish Armada
Jobs included foreign affairs
He was disrespectful to the Queen
Turned his back on her due to him wanting to be deputy in Ireland
He drew his sword on her as he had returned from military success and the power went to his head
He threw his weight around in court
He was told to crush the rebellion in Ireland but instead traced with the rebel leader
He rebelled as he wanted to rid the Queen of Cecil
Elizabeth forbade him from doing so but he burst into her private chambers and saw her without her wig
Society- Great Chain of Being
Society was seen as a God-given hierarchy that was highly structured- Great Chain of Being.
The lack of police or army meant it relied on a clear social structure in which everyone had a role and knew their place.
The nobility were under the monarch and God and included Earls, Dukes and Barons. They had inherited land and had their wealth in land. 14% of the country’s income went to 1% of the nobility.
The gentry were below the nobility and included Cecil and Walsingham. They were ‘new money’ and often worked as landlords or in trade. They were educated and served as MPs.
Yeomen owned land and estates.
Tenant farmers rented yeomen’s and gentry’s land
The landless/labouring poor included peasants and worked on tenant farmer’s land.
The vagrants and homeless moved from town to town.
90% of the population worked on land.
Town hierarchy
Merchants owned property.
Professionals included teachers, lawyers, clergy and doctors
Business owners were highly skilled craftsmen who employed others.
Skilled craftsmen learn a skill/trade.
Unskilled workers and the unemployed were at the bottom of society.
Culture- renaissance
This was the revival of European art, culture and literature under the influence of classical models in the 14th-16th centuries.
Humanism was a renaissance cultural movement which turned away from medieval scholars and following the Church without question and revived interest in Ancient Greek and Roman thought and original ideas.
People had more disposable incomes and took greater interest in music/art/architecture/literature and education.
Music- famous composers include Thomas Tallis and William Byrd
Architcture
Art- Nicholas Hilliard
Literature- ‘chap books’ were sold by street pedlars
Education
John Dee, John Napier (maths), William Camden (history), Francis Bacon (medicine).
More grammar schools and universities benefitted the gentry such as Cecil and Walsingham.
Most people were too poor to send their children to school and so by the end of Elizabeth’s reign, 30% of men and <10% of women could read or write, but the majority of gentry and yeomen were literate.
Literacy was seen as a way to complete daily tasks like reading prayers, understanding prices, writing letters, making notes of dates and writing wills.
Discipline was harsh and a birch rod as used to beat pupils.
Education was mainly for upper-class boys and lower-class boys could only attend school if they had financial support.
1/3 of Oxbridge graduates were nobility or gentry
Parish/Petty schools allowed young boys and upper-class girls to learn to read and write in order to progress to grammar schools.
72 grammar schools opened during Elizabeth’s reign.
Early independent schools conducted lessons in Latin and focused on conduct in order to prepare for careers at court.
Some nobility had private tutors.
Lower classes may have been taught to read and write by their masters.
Elizabethan poor
Poverty increased due to population increase, influenza epidemic, housing crisis, bad harvests, food shortages, inflation, lack of jobs and lack of jobs for monks/nuns/soldiers due to the break with Rome.
1495- poor were put in to stocks and sent back to their home towns
1531- they would be publicly whipped, had a hole burnt in their ear and hung.
Undeserving poor were seen as untrustworthy scammers/tricksters as they were able-bodied and chose not to work. They were punished and physically marred.
The GCOB meant nobles saw it as their duty to help the deserving poor. These people included paupers who could not help their situation, the disabled and the sick. Charities and alms houses were set up to help these people.
London
Bridewell Palace used as homeless shelter.
Bedlam built to house mentally ill.
Hospitals opened for sick and orphans although they could not cope with growing numbers and had poor conditions.
York
1515- beggar licences
1528- Master Beggar appointed
Beggars that refused to work were sent to the House of Correction.
Ipswich
1569- beggar licensing system.
Hospitals built for the old and sick.
Youth training for children to learn a trade.
Norwich
1570- 80% of the population lived in poverty.
The idle poor were tasked with knitting and sewing while the unfortunate poor were given food and care.
Rich citizens were taxed to pay for the care of the venerable.
Poor laws ensured consistency across the country- 3 categories indicated what happened to the person.
The rich were mandated to pay for the new care and the poor could be given work.
Activities
Lords, gentry and their families enjoyed tobacco, fencing, tennis, bowls, reading Greek and Roman texts, household musicians, musical evenings with madrigal songbooks and hunting deer and hawking.
Working people, the unemployed and their families enjoyed inns, taverns, wrestling, running, football, storytelling, gambling on bear-baiting, cards, dice, singing ballads and hunting rabbits.
All classes enjoyed celebrating feast day with dancing and drinking in the village, archery, fishing and theatres.
Theatres
Miracle plays based on the Bible were popular before the Elizabethan era. They often portrayed Catholic ideas which could lead to religious violence from protestant retaliation so Elizabeth put a stop to them.
Actors were thought to be a threat to law and order, beggars and unrespectable so a 1572 law required actors to be licensed.
1576- the first purpose-built London theatre opens.
1599- the Globe opens
By the end of Elizabeth’s reign there were 7 major theatres in London and 40 companies of actors.
The Globe burnt down after a canon accident as it was made of a thatched roof, oak timbers, lime, sand and goat’s hair plaster.
The rich and poor gathered in theatres with the poor standing and the rich seated close to the stage.
Christopher Marlowe was the son of a shoemaker who was a leading playwright. He was rumoured to be a government spy- was arrested in 1593 by the privy Council and died in a ‘drunken brawl’. Had a major influence on Shakespeare.
Elizabethan Golden Age
Fashion-
1574- Statutes of Apparel laws controlled clothes based on social rank
People who had the money to spend on clothes were impacted
Architecture-
Gothic styles > Italian renaissance
E-shaped floor plans in honour of Queen
Houses no longer built for defence
People who had enough money to build a nice house impacted
Religion under Elizabeth
Elizabeth’s mum, tutor and Catherine Parr who welcomed her back into the Church were Protestant- bought up/influenced Protestant. The Catholic Church said she was illegitimate- would have opposed this as it reflected badly on her.
1540- Jesuits created- claimed to only want to spread their message.
‘Religious settlement’
1559- Act of Supremacy, Act of Uniformity.
AoS- made Elizabeth the ‘governor’ of the Church (Henry was ’Head’ of the Church)
AoU- official faith Protestantism, rules for religious practice and worship, revised prayer book, retained Catholic traditions.
Counter reformation- Catholic attempt to revert Protestants
1568- William Allen establishes a seminary in the Netherlands with the Pope’s backing to train Catholic priests to send to England as missionaries.
1571- Recusancy fines for Catholics who didn’t attend Protestant services. Not highly enforced. Illegal to own Catholic items like rosary beads.
1580- Jesuit missionaries sent to convert Protestants to Catholicism.
Jesuits (Edmund Campion) arrested, tortured, hung/drawn/quartered.
1581- Recusancy fines increased to £20- more than most could pay. Highly enforced and high treason to convert to Catholicism.
1585- any Catholic ordained after 1559 put to death. Legal to kill anyone who attempted to assassinate the Queen.
1588- Spanish Armada
1593- Statute of Confinement- Catholics could not travel more than 5 miles from their home without permission.
Northern Rebellion, 1569
Elizabeth refused the Duke of Norfolk’s proposal to MQOS.
Earl of Westmorland and Earl of Northumberland held an illegal Catholic mass in Durham Cathedral.
They marched south with 4600 men but disbanded when the Earl of Sussex raised an army against them.
DofN imprisoned, EofW escaped to France, EofN executed.
Papal Bull, 27th April 1570
Special message issued by Pope that stated Elizabeth was not the true Queen, excommunicated her from the Church and called on the British and Catholics to disobey/challenge her authority.
Stirred up rebellions as it forced British to choose between their Queen and their religion.
Papal Bull, 27th April 1570
Special message issued by Pope that stated Elizabeth was not the true Queen, excommunicated her from the Church and called on the British and Catholics to disobey/challenge her authority.
Stirred up rebellions as it forced British to choose between their Queen and their religion.
Ridolfi Plot, 1571
Led by Ridolfi but included the Duke of Norfolk.
Aimed to coincide with the invasion of Dutch Catholics, kill Elizabeth, crown MQOS and marry her to the DofN.
Throckmorton Plot, 1583
Led by Sir Francis Throckmorton.
Aimed to kill Elizabeth, crown MQOS, have the English Catholics uprise and the French invade.
Throckmorton was executed.
Failure of rebellions
Spy network could identify and deal with people.
The religious settlement left the majority of the population happy and religious differences were mostly tolerated.
Elizabeth was a skilled politician who got her own way/had the final say whilst still allowing MPs and Lords to feel they had influence.
Lack of mercy and clear consequences meant people did not want to cross Elizabeth. Shennen executed her cousin and former favourite.
Unconvincing alternatives included MQOS (blamed for her husband’s death), Philip of Spain (little interest in country, wife burnt hundreds at the stake). This meant rebellions could not gain much support.
Babington Plot, 1583
Led by Anthony Babington.
Aimed to kill Elizabeth and crown MQOS.
MQOS was trialled and executed.
Failure of rebellions
Spy network could identify and deal with people.
The religious settlement left the majority of the population happy and religious differences were mostly tolerated.
Elizabeth was a skilled politician who got her own way/had the final say whilst still allowing MPs and Lords to feel they had influence.
Lack of mercy and clear consequences meant people did not want to cross Elizabeth. Shennen executed her cousin and former favourite.
Unconvincing alternatives included MQOS (blamed for her husband’s death), Philip of Spain (little interest in country, wife burnt hundreds at the stake). This meant rebellions could not gain much support.
Causes of rebellions
Noble families (Northumberland, Westmorland), disliked the gentry that were given important positions in government instead of the nobility.
The Catholic northerners disliked the Religious settlement because they now had to attend Protestant services and were fined 12d if they did not. They did not like the removal of decorations in Church and saw these as a direct attack on their religion.
Catholic nobles were angry at the prospect of war with Spain.
1567-8- Protestant rebellion in Netherlands. Cecil seized a Spanish boat supplying Spain's army in the Netherlands with gold and silver.
1568- Spain had regained control in the Netherlands and a large Catholic army was now situated just across the Channel. Some British Catholics thought this might mean support for their cause.
Before rebellions, the Duke of Norfolk plotted to marry MQOS to then lead a rebellion and remove Elizabeth and Cecil from power. He was placed in the Tower of London.
The Duke of Northumberland had had a valuable copper mine on his land taken by Elizabeth. Northern Earls were in increasing debt and had already lost positions of power.
Southern Protestants were appointed to positions of power in the north of England. The Duke of Sussex became President Council of the North and Lord Hunsdon was put in charge of Northumberland's land.
Pilkington was a strict Protestant who had radical views and preached against Catholicism and had been appointed Bishop of Durham as part of the Religious settlement.
MQOS did not follow the Treaty of Edinburgh and was prepared to make a claim for the English throne. She was placed under house arrest in Tutbury to keep her under watch.
Elizabeth refused to marry or name an heir as she feared a husband might try to undermine her position as queen and a successor might lead to rival groups forming to challenge her decision.
Puritans
Puritans were extreme Protestants who studied the Bible, wore plain clothing and conducted simple services.
Presbyterians were hard-line puritans who questioned the religious settlement and the need for Bishops.
They held prophesyings (meetings) to discuss the Bible and criticise the Queen and her religious policies.
Grindal encouraged these so Elizabeth suspended him as Archbishop.
1580- John Field banned from preaching and the leaders of the separatist Church were hung.
Peter Wentworth and Anthony Cape were Presbyterian MPs who attempted to bring change to the Church in parliament.
Grindal was replaced with Whitgift, who banned unlicensed preaching and forced Church attendance with fines.
New High Commission could fine and imprison Puritans.
Hundreds of clergymen were dismissed.
Printers who spread the Puritan message were punished.
High profile Puritans like Walsingham and Dudley were cracked down on.
The influence of Puritanism declined.
The Church of England bought stability that no one wanted to lose.
Organisation of Puritanism broke down and the death of powerful Puritans removed influence in the Royal Court.
1588- John Field died.
Mary, Queen of Scots
1542- Mary born Catholic, Henry VII’s great granddaughter, Queen of Scotland at 6 days old.
1558- MQOS’s French mother Mary of Guise was ruling Scotland for her whilst Mary was in France with her husband.
1559- MQOS became queen of France with her husband Francis II- Scottish lords rebelled as the county had become increasingly Protestant in her absence.
1560- MQOS husband dies and Elizabeth helps Scottish lords defeat MQOS’s mum. MQOS signs the treaty of Edinburgh and gives up her claim to the English throne.
1565- MQOS marries Lord Darnley and gives birth to James in 1566.
1567- Darnley murdered suspiciously, MQOS remarries to Earl of Bothwell. Scottish Lords rebel, MQOS abdicates and is imprisoned.
1568- MQOS escapes and raises an army. She is defeated at Langside and flees to England to ask for Elizabeth's protection.
Options for actions with Mary
Keep her in England as a prisoner- stops her leading a Catholic rebellion to take the throne but as she has not been proven guilty of a crime her relatives in France and Scotland/Catholic countries may launch an attack to free her.
Provide her with an army to help her regain the Scottish throne- Divine right of Monarchy says Mary has the right to rule- Elizabeth is purely backing this up. However, she could use this to gain support of Catholics and take the throne.
Allow Mary to stay with relatives in France- this removes her from Catholic rebels in England so she cannot cause a rebellion but Catholic France might use this to help her take the Scottish and English thrones.
Hand her over to the Scottish lords to be put on trial- Scotland was now Protestant like England, the outcome would be favourable. However, they would likely execute her if she is found guilty- this would anger Catholics and puts Elizabeth in the firing line as they have executed a Queen.
Allow Mary complete freedom of movement- this would make Catholics ally with Elizabeth as she was lenient and kind to a fellow Catholic. However, Mary may stir up a rebellion in the Catholic north of England.
Execute Mary- this would end Mary's claim to the throne and stop her threat for the crown and religion of England. However, Catholics would be angry and plot against Elizabeth. MQOS was also a Queen appointed by God so this subverts the Great Chain of Being
Spanish Armada
1588- Philip II of Spain launched 151 war ships with 7000 sailors and 34000 soldiers to sail to the Netherlands and pick up men before invading England.
6th of August- Armada anchored off Dutch coast
7th of August- Drake ordered the English to send 8 fireships sailing into the Spanish Armada. Mass panic ensued and the Armada was thrown into chaos and damage.
8th of August- Battle of Gravelines began. English fired constantly from 100m and Spanish ships were badly damaged. Duke Medina-Sidonia attempted to lead the battered ships home as the English chased them away.
The Armada was blown off course by a storm. Their food rotted, their water got polluted and they were wrecked due to lack of maps for northern Britain.
Survivors who made it to the shore were executed by the Scottish and Irish.
65/151 ships returned to Spain.
Henry VIII and Mary built up the British navy to protect England. Tudor ships were designed to fight and travel.
Philip wanted his navy to be large and powerful so it was the largest and strongest in the world.
'Line of battle' was a tactic used during naval battles where ships formed a line and fired together to sink as many enemy ships as possible.
Raids involved taking enemies by surprise, destroying as many ships as possible and stealing treasure before the enemy had a chance to fight back.
Fireships were old ships set alight and sent into the middle of the enemy fleet.
Lateens were triangular sails that increased speed and maneuverability. They were useful in raids and battles.
Powerful canons allowed for distance firing so sailors did not have to board enemy ships.
The astrolabe increased voyage-planning and location accuracy and meant sailors were better prepared for long voyages and hostile waters.
Reasons for Drake’s circumnavigation
New routes and territories
The Strait of Anain was found by Martin Frobisher in 1576 and Drake wanted to investigate this claim.
SoA would speed up the time taken to travel between East Asia and northern Europe, allowing for a spice and silk trade flourish.
Gain wealth
Lucrative slave trade- the development of sugar and gold mining operations led to a requirement of people for labour.
Ships loaded with gold and silver left Nombre de Dios to return to Spain so he could raid the town and seize gold.
In plundering the Spanish, the voyage may pay for itself.
Gain prestige
If he made lots of money and discoveries he would be knighted and also gain a military and naval reputation.
Take from Spanish
In plundering the Spanish, the voyage may pay for itself.
Humiliate and get revenge on Spanish
Spain and England had a long-standing history of rivalry
Trade opportunities
South America bought the prospect of trade with Spanish colonies, a marked for English cloth and the possibility of establishing English colonies.
If he enslaved people he would be able to sell them for goods.
Spreading English culture and religion
Establish power ahead of Empire building
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