Abnormal Psychology CH 3; E 1

correlate

variable (X) that is associated with an outcome of interest (Y)

risk factor

a factor or characteristic that is associated with an increased risk of developing condition Y.

variable risk factor

a risk factor that can change within a person

fixed marker

a risk factor that cannot change within a person

variable marker

a variable risk factor that, when changed, doesn't influence the outcome of interest (i.e., it can vary, but it is still a marker of increased risk for the outcome of interest)

causal risk factor

change in x leads to change in y

etiology

cause of disease

necessary cause

characteristic that must exist for a disorder (Y) to occur

sufficient cause

a condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder; rare

contributory cause

increases the probability of a disorder developing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur.

distal risk factors

occur early in life but don't show effects for many years

proximal risk factors

factors that operate shortly before the occurrence of the symptoms of a disorder

reinforcing contributory cause

a condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring

diathesis-stress model

someone who has a preexisting vulnerability for that disorder experiences a major stressor.

additive model

the diathesis and the stress simply add up, or sum together.

interactive model

some amount of diathesis must be present before stress will have any effect

protective factors

decrease the likelihood of negative outcomes among those at risk

resilience

the ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstances.

development psychopathology

concentrates on determining what is abnormal at any point in development by comparing and contrasting it with the normal and expected changes that occur in the course of development.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

4 biological factors

(1) genetic vulnerabilities, (2) brain dysfunction and neural plasticity, (3) neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities in the brain or other parts of the central nervous system, and (4) temperament.

genes

long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that are present at various locations on chromosomes.

chromosomes

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

polygenic

describes a characteristic that is influenced by many genes

genotype

total genetic endowment

phenotype

observed structural and functional characteristics that result from an interaction of the genotype and the environment

genotype-environment interaction

genetic factors are not necessary and sufficient to cause mental disorders but instead can contribute to a vulnerability or diathesis to develop psychopathology that only happens if there is a significant stressor in the person's life

genotype-environment correlation

genotypic vulnerability that can shape a child's environmental experiences

evocative effect

an increase in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is increased in reinforcing effectiveness by the same motivating operation

active effect

the child seeks out or builds an environment that is congenial

behavior genetics

the field that focuses on studying the heritability of mental disorders (as well as other aspects of psychological functioning): (1) the family history method, (2) the twin method, and (3) the adoption method.

family history/pedigree method

an investigator observe samples of relatives of each proband or index case (the subject, or carrier, of the trait or disorder in question) to see whether the incidence increases in proportion to the degree of hereditary relationship.

concordance rate

indicates the percentage of twin pairs or other pairs of relatives who exhibit the same disorder

linkage analysis

studies of mental disorders capitalize on several currently known locations on chromosomes of genes for other inherited physical characteristics or biological processes

association studies

two large groups of individuals, one group with and one group without a given disorder.

developmental systems approach

acknowledges that genetics influences neural activity, which in turn influences behavior, which in turn influences the environment, but also that these influences are bidirectional.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

hormones

chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands in our bodies.

pituitary gland

the master gland of the endocrine system

cortisol

stress hormone

tempermanent

child's reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation, which is believed to be biologically programmed.

mediator

lies between two other variables and helps explain the relationship between them.

object relations theory

the psychodynamic theory that views the desire for relationships as the key motivating force in human behavior

interpersonal perspective

emphasizes social and cultural forces rather than inner instincts as determinants of behavior.

attachment theory

the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life

freud's contributions

• some theories and techniques still used today

• certain abnormal mental phenomena occur as an attempt to cope with difficult problems.

humanistic perspective

the psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices

existential perspective

the emphasis is on person's uniqueness, freedom and choice, and responsibility.

behavioral perspective

the study of directly observable behavior and of the stimuli and reinforcing conditions that control it could serve as a basis for understanding human behavior, normal and abnormal.

learning

the modification of behavior as a consequence of experience

classical conditioning

a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditioned behavior.

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

operant/instrumental conditioning

a learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future

reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

observational learning

learning through observation alone, without directly experiencing an unconditioned stimulus (for classical conditioning) or a reinforcer (for instrumental conditioning).

cognitive psychology

study of basic information-processing mechanisms such as attention and memory, as well as higher mental processes such as thinking, planning, and decision making.

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

cognitive-behavioral perspective

a theory of abnormal behavior that focuses on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

nonconsciously

outside awareness.

attribution theory

assigning causes to things that happen.

attributional style

a person's characteristic way of explaining outcomes of events in his or her life

types of detrimental social factors

(1) early deprivation or trauma, (2) problems in parenting style, (3) marital discord and divorce, (4) low socioeconomic status and unemployment, (5) maladaptive peer relationships, and (6) prejudice and discrimination.

authoritative style

very warm and very careful to set clear standards and limits on certain kinds of behaviors while allowing considerable freedom within these limits.

authoritarian style

high on control but low on warmth.

permissive/indulgent style

parents are high on warmth and low on control and discipline.

neglectful/uninvolved style

parents are low on warmth and low on control.

proactive aggression

where they initiate the aggressive behavior

reactive aggression

where they overreact when confronted

prosocial popular children

communicate with their peers in friendly and assertive yet cooperative ways

antisocial popular children

tend to be "tough boys" who may be athletically skilled but who do poorly academically. they are often highly aggressive and defiant of authority

prejudice

prejudgment based on personal characteristics

discrimination in race, gender, etc.

unjust treatment of others based on perceived group membership

access discrimination

members of a certain group (e.g., women, people of a certain race or ethnicity) are not hired because of their personal characteristics

treatment discrimination

certain types of people are given a job but are paid less and receive fewer opportunities for promotion

cultural perspective

impact of culture on the definition and manifestation of mental disorders.

cultural syndromes

sets of particular symptoms of distress found in particular cultures, which may or may not be recognized as an illness within the culture

cultural idioms of distress

ways of talking about or expressing distress that differ across cultures

cultural explanations

different ways of explaining the causes of different symptoms or disorders