civ final

Machiavelli

a statesman of Florence who advocated a strong central government (1469-1527) - wrote The Prince

Huguenots

French Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who followed the teachings of theologian John Calvin/Calvinism

Philip IV/Duke of Olivares

expelled Jews from France in 1306, destroyed Knight’s Templar in 1307

Henry IV/Duke of Sully

Calvinist prince who converted to Catholicism; introduced Edict of Nantes in 1598 that allowed religious toleration of Protestants

politiques

rulers who prioritized the strength of the state; “you may believe what you wish, but your allegiance is to the state, not the state and church”

Thirty Years’ War

a war in central Europe lasting from 1618-1648, initially involving a conflict between German Protestants and Catholics and later including political rivalries with France, Sweden, and Denmark opposing the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and the rest of the world following Columbus's voyages.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian navigator who was funded by the Spanish Government to find a passage to the Far East. He is given credit for discovering the "New World," even though at his death he believed he had made it to India. He made four voyages to the "New World." The first sighting of land was on October 12, 1492, and three other journies until the time of his death in 1503.

Spanish Empire

built off of envy of the Portuguese Empire’s successes; began a “4th crusade” after the Reconquista of the New World; fueled by Pope Alexander VI restating Doctrine of Discovery as law of nations

Vasco de Gama

Portuguese explorer and navigator who arrived in the already established Indian Ocean trade network and was treated like trash; eventually engaged in piracy and became a hero of the Portuguese

Portuguese Empire

kickstarted by Henry the Navigator, who wanted to have control of coasts under Muslim influence; goes to Nicolas V, who institutes Doctrine of Discovery, which legitimised African Expansion and furthered crusading mindset; creates network of Atlantic slave trade, island networks, and sugar plantations

Treaty of Westphalia

Ended Thirty Years War in 1648; granted right to individual rulers within the Holy Roman Empire to choose their own religion-either Protestant or Catholic; established the idea of state sovereignty that we see today

War of Spanish Succession

conflict that arose out of the disputed succession to the throne of Spain following the death of the childless Charles II, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war was primarily a struggle to determine whether the vast possessions of the Spanish Empire should pass to the Hapsburgs (Spanish) or the Bourbons (French)

John Churchill

1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722), was a renowned military and political figure in 17th and 18th-century Britain. His distinguished military career reached its pinnacle with the victory at the Battle of Blenheim in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. In recognition of his successes, he was granted the title of Duke of Marlborough by Queen Anne. Beyond his military achievements, Churchill also played a significant role in politics, holding various offices and enjoying a close connection to the royal family.

Rene Descartes

Major Enlightenment thinker. Most commonly known for his statement “I think, therefore I am.” Proposed theories of deductive reasoning and radical skepticism. Wrote the Discourse on Method which discussed a four-point plan to addressing questions.

Haitian Revolution

Occurred in August 1791. France had recently emancipated free blacks and Jews, but did not emancipate enslaved peoples. The Haitians paired with the Spanish during this war. The slaves of Haiti revolted, and in 1794, France outlawed slavery, and Haiti became engrossed in France’s affairs once again.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Example of a first wave feminist. She rejected Rousseau’s masculinity and said that women are equal to men. She also stated that society had turned women into perpetual children, and that society can never tell if women are innately less than man because of their forced infancy.

Dutch Republic

Rebel against a foreign power in 1566 and eventually reorganized as a republic. They invent the modern corporation structure and a joint stock company with the founding of the Dutch East India Company (1602), which depersonalizes investments and made it safer. This makes the Dutch very rich, and they build the world’s largest private navy and modern bank.

Dutch East India Company

A powerful and influential trading company established in 1602 by the Dutch Republic. It played a crucial role in the Age of Exploration and colonial expansion, particularly in the East Indies. It became one of the world's first multinational corporations, dominating the spice trade, establishing colonies, and contributing significantly to the Dutch Golden Age. Its importance lies in shaping global trade, influencing Dutch economic prosperity, and laying the groundwork for modern corporate structures.

Oliver Cromwell

Emerged as a pivotal figure in the English Civil War (1642–1651), rising from a skilled military commander to a central player in Parliament's victory over the Royalists. As a key leader of the Parliamentarian forces with a Presbyterian army, he played a crucial role in shaping the outcome of the conflict. His significance lies in his military prowess, strategic acumen, and subsequent role as Lord Protector, which had a lasting impact on England's political landscape, as people stopped looking to the king as their protector, which led to the Agreement of the People, an act that redistricted parliament, that held an election every two years, and that parliament makes war, law, and diplomacy.

mercantilism

An economic theory and policy framework that dominated European thought from the 16th to the 18th century, emphasizing a nation's wealth and power through the accumulation of precious metals. Characterized by protectionist trade practices, colonial expansion, and government intervention in the economy; aimed to achieve a favorable balance of trade by exporting more than importing and fostering economic self-sufficiency.

English Civil War

Conflict between the Cavaliers (wealthier royalist supporters) and the Roundheads (supporters of Parliament & Oliver Cromwell). Was primarily triggered by tensions between the monarchy and Parliament over issues of power, religion, and governance. King Charles I's attempts to assert absolute authority clashed with Parliament's desire for constitutional limitations and religious freedoms, leading to a protracted conflict. The war resulted in the temporary establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell, the trial and execution of King Charles I, and a lasting impact on the balance of power between monarchy and Parliament, setting the stage for constitutional developments in England.

Levellers

a political movement active during the English Civil Wars who were committed to popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. The hallmark of this group’s thought was its populism, as shown by its emphasis on equal natural rights, and their practice of reaching the public through pamphlets, petitions and vocal appeals to the crowd

Diggers

a group of religious and political dissidents in England, associated with agrarian socialism.

Cardinal Richelieu

a chief minister to King Louis XIII of France and a key architect of absolute monarchy during the 17th century. Significantly strengthened the power of the French monarchy by curbing the influence of the nobility and enhancing royal authority, laying the groundwork for the absolutist rule that characterized the reign of Louis XIV.

James I

King of England and Scotland who angered the puritans, merchants, and aristocrats. This king dissolved parliament and began to collect as much legal money as possible, and appoints an archbishop to make stuff more church-like, in what is known as the “Popish Plot.”

John Locke

a prominent Enlightenment philosopher and political theorist whose ideas profoundly influenced modern political thought. His most notable works, such as the "Two Treatises of Government," championed the concepts of natural rights, the social contract, and limited government, providing a foundation for democratic governance and individual liberties that significantly impacted the development of constitutional principles in the Western world.

Glorious Revolution

occurred in 1688, involved the relatively peaceful overthrow of King James II of England and the ascension of William III and Mary II to the throne. Its importance lies in the establishment of constitutional monarchy, the supremacy of Parliament, and the affirmation of individual rights through the Bill of Rights (king must be anglican; freedom of speech for parliament; taxes require Parliament’s consent; army maintenance require Parliament’s consent; Parliament’s must be held at least every three years; toleration of Christian differences) marking a pivotal moment in the evolution of parliamentary democracy in Britain and influencing political developments in other parts of the world.

Isaac Newton

a renowned English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer, widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists in history. His groundbreaking work, including the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation, laid the foundation for classical mechanics and significantly advanced humanity's understanding of the natural world.

Charles I

The unpopular son of James I. King of England, Scotland, and Ireland whose reign was marked by conflicts with Parliament, ultimately leading to the English Civil War. His refusal to cooperate with Parliament's demands for greater political and religious freedoms and his attempts to assert absolute authority resulted in his trial and execution

Petition of Right

petition sent by the English Parliament to King Charles I complaining of a series of breaches of law. The petition sought recognition of four principles: no taxation without the consent of Parliament, no imprisonment without cause, no quartering of soldiers on subjects, and no martial law in peacetime.

Galileo

an Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician whose contributions revolutionized our understanding of the natural world. He improved the telescope, observed celestial bodies, and championed the heliocentric model, challenging traditional views and laying the groundwork for the scientific method. Wanted the answer “How?” not the “Why?”

Francis Bacon

Wrote the Novum Organum, which emphasized the need for new logic of natural science. Advocated for empiricism (slow accumulation of well-supported observations generalized to support larger theories through empirical/material observation)

Voltaire

a French Enlightenment philosopher and writer known for his wit, satire, and advocacy for civil liberties. His works, including "Candide" and numerous essays, played a crucial role in promoting ideas of freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and separation of church and state, influencing both the Enlightenment movement and the broader development of liberal thought in Europe.

Encyclopediae

This book is most famous for representing the thought of the Enlightenment. According to Denis Diderot, the books aim was "to change the way people think" and for people to be able to inform themselves and to know things. Attempted to collect and summarize human knowledge in a variety of fields and topics, ranging from philosophy to theology to science and the arts

Adam Smith

“Rationalize agriculture.” He was among the first philosophers of his time to declare that wealth is created through productive labor, and that self-interest motivates people to put their resources to the best use. He argued that profits flowed from capital investments, and that capital gets directed to where the most profit can be made. These ideas — That wealth follows capital, and that individuals own capital — are core to capitalism as we know it today

sugar

In the Age of Enlightenment and colonization, this emerged as a highly coveted and profitable commodity that played a pivotal role in shaping global trade, economic structures, and colonial expansion. The demand in Europe drove the establishment of extensive plantation systems, leading to the exploitation of labor through the transatlantic slave trade, fundamentally altering social, economic, and political landscapes in both the colonies and the European powers.

slave trade

Refers to the historical transatlantic trade of enslaved Africans from the 16th to the 19th centuries. European powers, particularly Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands, engaged in the brutal practice of capturing and transporting millions of Africans to the Americas to work as slaves on plantations, in mines, and in various other labor-intensive industries.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Emphasized the Social Contract; stated that emotions, family, etc., should be upheld by the government, which would allow for democracy. He also iterated the idea that those who dissent from the law should be forced to follow it to “fix their ignorance.”

American Revolution

primarily fueled by grievances over British taxation without representation, restrictions on colonial self-governance, and broader issues of individual rights. The importance lies in its enduring influence of its democratic ideals, shaping the course of modern constitutional governance and inspiring movements for liberty around the world, as well as being the first secular government based on philosophy, rather than religious ideals.

French Revolution

Triggered by widespread social inequality, economic hardships, and political discontent in France. It sought to overthrow the absolute monarchy, establish a republic, and pursue ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Had far-reaching consequences, leading to the rise of radical political ideologies, the end of feudalism, and the spread of democratic ideals across Europe

Napoleon Bonaparte

He became Emperor of the French in 1804 and is renowned for his military brilliance, achieving significant conquests across Europe during the Napoleonic Wars. He implemented the Napoleonic Code, a legal system that influenced laws globally, emphasizing principles of equality before the law and individual rights. Despite his ultimate defeat and exile,his legacy endures, leaving a lasting impact on military strategy, legal systems, and the geopolitical landscape of Europe.