Beliefs in Society Booklet 2

Durkheim- The Elementary Forms of Religion (1912)

• Religion of the Aboriginals was totemism

• The totem is a reflection of the group itself

• In worshipping the totem, they were worshipping society’s norms and values and such worshipping society as a whole

Bellah- Civil Religion

• Religion reminds people of their relationship to a nation and religion attracts sacred qualities to society itself

• Countries with high immigrant populations are likely to have civil religion as it acts as a form of social solidarity e.g. USA

Malinowski- Trobriand Islanders and rituals

• Members of the tribe would use rituals and religion to deal with social stress

  1. At times of uncertainty: people would pray when ocean fishing in the ocean but not in the lagoon- they pray where they have no control over the water

  2. They would pray in times of life crisis e.g. funerals to feel solidarity and comfort

AO3 Evaluation of Functionalism

• 2021 census: 46.2% =Christian but in 2011 census: 59.3%= Christian

• PEW research= ¼ US citizens aren’t affiliated with any religion

• Ritu Kala Samskara- celebrating getting a girl’s first period

Marx

• ‘Religion is the opium of the masses’

• Religion is a key part of the dominant ideology and maintaining the current class system- an agent of false class consciousness

Leach (1988)

• 77% of church leaders went to private school where as only 7% of the British population went to private school

• AO3 analysis: Arch Bishop of Canterbury went to Eton

Scripture selling Spiritual Compensation

• ‘It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of the needle, than for a rich man to enter into the Kingdom of God’- Mark 10:25

• ‘Blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the Earth’

AO3 Evaluation Marxism and doctrine

• Zakat and Tides- 2.5% of all earnings being donated to charity and doesn’t benefit a specific institution

Halevy (1927)

• Church and religion prevent revolution across the UK during the 19th Century

• Caused the rise of Methodism and favouring the Ascetic lifestyle

• AO3 analysis:

  • YouGov Survey (2015)- 62% of Church attendees were M/C

  • BSA Survey(2012)- 75% of W/C never attended a religious service

Norris and Inglehart

• Existential security threat

• The bigger the threat of conflict, the higher the rate of religiosity

Yap (2015)

• Filipino women that were maids '‘packed up their religion’ in order to settle into their jobs better

Holden (2002)

• Jehovah’s Witness are mostly W/C and work isolated jobs

• socially communicate by knocking on doors in order to recruit new members

AO3 Evaluation of Marxism

• Gramsci- Rather than viewing religion as a conservative force. the W/C used it as a means of gaining social change

Bloch

• The principle of hope

• Religion creates a utopia of hope

• Helps the Proletariat understand their exploitation more clearly

Moduro

• Liberation Theology

• Catholic priests taught W/C about their exploitation given the rise of dictatorships and totalitarianism

Cassanova- Liberation Theology

• Liberation Theology acted as the pre-condition for modern day democracy

Lehmann

• Pentecostal challenge:

  • Liberation theology is an option for the poor- changing inequality

  • Pentecostalism is an option of the poor- changing the individual through motivation (conservative force)

Worseley

• Millenarian Movements:

• Cargo Cults: started in 19th century Papua New Guinea- protested ships being for colonisers rather than natives

• Proletariat Self-consciousness- a new found self-respect that challenged colonialism as it made the w/c aware of their oppression

Gramsci

• Counter Hegemony and the rise of the Organic intellectual

• Social change can’t be achieved until an organic intellectual is present

Billings

• The Coal miners Vs The textile workers

• W/C Christian responses to oppression in Kentucky

• Coal Miners achieved social change whilst the textile workers remained stagnant because they had organic intellectuals to lead the charge

• Organic intellectuals require:

  1. Leadership

  2. Organisation

  3. Support

Cassanova (1994)

• The irrational nature of religious belief caused more war, persecution and suffering than any other belief system

Armstrong

• Stained glass ceiling of women being marginalised in religion and not able to reach

• AO3 Analysis: Pope Francis ruled out the idea of a woman becoming a priest in the Catholic Church

AO3 Evaluation of Armstrong

• 40% of Methodist preachers are women

• First female bishop= 2015

• First female Imam= 2020

Daly (1973)

• To reduce gender bias in religion, deities should be referred to by gender neutral names such as they or it much like the Waheguru in Sikhism

• The gender bias is clear as Eve is depicted as Evil and one man’s word being the equivalent of 2 women

AO3 analysis and evaluation of Male associations in Religion

• NAMs= least patriarchal

• Isis= goddess of maternity in ancient Egypt

• Shiva= Goddess of benevolence

• Aphrodite= Goddess of love

• Roles are still associated to gender roles or negativity

De Beauvoir (1953)

• The second sex

• ‘Religion confirms the social order and justifies the resignation of women by giving them hope of a better future in a sexless heaven.’

• Clear as men can have up to 4 wives in Islam, men are the only ones with the right to divorce their wives

• ‘Wives submit to their husbands as on to the Lord’ Ephesians

Pryce

• Women stay home to act as a sanctuary from racism

AO3 Evaluation of Oppression of Women in Religion

• Brusco- Methodism in the UK was pioneered by women who wanted to control their husbands’ ‘macho’ behaviour

• El-Saadawi- Religion may not be a direct cause of female oppression

• Burchill- The hijab= a mobile prison

• Aldridge- It makes women invisible and removes female identity as they are now anonymous

• Watson et al- The hijab= an expression of identity rather than oppression

• Woodhead- The hijab is a form of liberation that free women from the male gaze

• Abu-Laghod- The hijab is now a sign of urban sophistication

Holmes (1994)

• Women are seen as impure due to their sexual reproductive healtyh e.g. menstruation and gestation- Churching and no fasting or praying

Woodhead (2002)

• Religious texts/ scriptures only represent female sexuality in terms of gender

El-Saadawi (1980)

• Religious practices themselves aren’t patriarchal, the cultural interpretatioon is.

• religious messages and scriptures have been manipulated to suit patriarchy

Kurtz (2016)

• Women in Islam have power in the private sphere e.g. the Qu’ran says ‘heaven is at your mother’s feet.’

AO3 Evaluation of Feminism and Religion

• Aldridge (2013)- Religion may fill some void for some women

• Brasher (1998)- For Christian Fundamentalists, women organise the participation in the church

• Woodhead (2002)- Worship of the ‘Spirit of God’ is essentially feminine.

• Gross (1994)- There is a post-patriarchal Bhuddism developing in the West

Berger

• The sacred canopy= common theology to understand predestination

• In contemporary society, there has been a loss of the sacred canopy

Weber

• Theodicy of disprivilege

• Theodicy of good fortune

Ultimately these theodicies justify current stratification methods and give complete answers to ultimate questions.

Christiano and Swatos

• M/C churches in the USA adopt a theodicy of good fortune as they are closely linked with the State- conserative force

• W/C Evangelical Chruches reflect theodicy of disprivlege- social change

Hamilton (2002)

• Aruges that Weber sees religion as ‘fundamentally a response to the difficultes and injustices of life’

Weber- The Protestant Work Ethic

• The rise of Protestantism and the acsetic life gave way to the spirit of capitalism

• Constant hardwork will lead to salvation

• This sustainable investment made people richer and richer creating capitalism

• Benjamin Franklin- ‘Lose no time: be always employed in something useful.’

AO3 Evaluation

• Hunt- Calvinism accelerated across Europe and led to the Capitalism in Europe. Formed the foundation of the American Dream

• Redding- East Tiger economies are influenced by post-confusion religion

• Berger- Need resources not just belief to maintain Calvinist lifestyle e.g. The divide in development between the North and South of Brazil

• Weber- Resources and ISA of religion are necessary to create capitalism

• Marshall- Capitalism doesn’t always develop just because of Calvinism e.g. Scotland

• Kautsky- Capitalism existed before Calvinism and was adopted by the bourgeoisie to maintain their status and justify their pursuit of profit

• Frank- Slavery, piracy and colonialism were more important than Calvisnism and are the true reason that capitalism was able to develop in the West.

Bruce

• Religion as a form of social protest

• MLK and his following were cultivated in the Church where they could evade their White oppressors

• New Christian Right cultivated audience through televangleism and were eventually successful in the repeal of Roe V Wade

AO3 Evaluation of Religion and Social change

• Haynes- Unusual for someone/thing who is closely linked to the State e.g. religious leaders to go against the State or patirachal groups

• McGuire and Robinson- The nature and extent of religious belief in society, the significance of religion on culture, the extent of social involvement in religion