mgmt exam 3 vocab

Group

Two or more freely interacting individuals who share norms and goals and have a common identity

Formal groups

Assigned by organizations to accomplish specific goals

Informal groups

Members’ overriding purpose for meeting is friendship or a common interest

Roles

A set of expected behaviors for a particular position

Task roles

keep the group and the group’s work on track; enable work group to define, clarify, and pursue a common purpose

Maintenance roles

Keep the group together; foster supportive and constructive interpersonal relationships

Norms

Attitudes, opinions, feelings, or actions shared by two or more people that guide behavior

Punctuated equilibrium model of group development

portrays groups as experiencing long periods of inertia with brief revolutionary changes prompted by members’ awareness of time and deadlines; common type of group development in groups with deadlines

Team

A small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable

Social loafing

The tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases

Virtual teams

Teams that work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort and achieve common goals

Conflict

occurs when one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party

Functional conflict

is constructive or cooperative conflict that is characterized by:

• Consultative interactions

• A focus on the issue

• Mutual respect

• Useful give and take

Dysfunctional conflict

threatens an organization’s interests

Incivility

Any form of socially harmful behavior

Bullying

different from other forms of incivility

Programmed conflict

• Conflict that raises different opinions regardless of the personal feelings of the managers

• Gets contributors to either defend or criticize ideas based on relevant facts rather than personal preference or political interest

Devil’s advocacy

assigning someone the role of critic

Dialectic method

fostering a structured debate of opposing viewpoints

Negotiation

A give-and-take decision-making process involving two or more parties with different preferences

integrating

interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify it, weigh alternatives, and select a solution

obliging

• tends to show low concern for yourself and a great concern for others

• minimize differences & highlight similarities to please the other party

dominating

• high concern for self and low concern for others

• i win, you lose

• other party’s needs are ignored

avoiding

passive withdrawal from the problem and active suppression of the issue are in common

compromising

• give-and-take approach with moderate concern for self and others

• appropriate when parties have opposite goals or possess equal power

Distributive negotiation

Concerns a single issue—a “fixed pie”—in which one person gains at the expense of another

integrative negotiation

Negotiation in which numerous interests are considered, resulting in an agreement that is satisfactory for both parties

Added value negotiation

The negotiating parties cooperatively develop multiple deal packages while building a productive long-term relationship

contact hypothesis

Suggests that the more members of different groups interact, the less intergroup conflict they will experience

Decision-making

identifying and choosing from among alternative solutions that lead to a desired state of affairs.

Rational decision-making

a model that explains how managers should make decisions, in a perfect world. It assumes managers are completely objective and possess full information for their decisions

Non-rational decision-making

models that explain how managers actually make decisions. These models assume decision making is uncertain, that decision-makers possess incomplete information, and that managers struggle to make optimal decisions.

Satisficing

seeking solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient (rather than optimal)

normative model

describes the process that managers actually use when making decisions

intuition model

Consists of judgments, insights, or decisions that come to mind on their own, without explicit awareness of the evoking cues and of course without explicit evaluation of the validity of these cues

Bounded rationality

the notion that decision makers are “bounded” or restricted by a variety of constraints when making decisions.

Heuristics

cognitive shortcuts or biases that are used to simplify the process of making decisions

Evidence-based decision making

the process of conscientiously using the best available data and evidence when making managerial decisions.

Big data

the vast quantity of data available for decision making; the collection, sorting, and analysis of that information, and the techniques to do so.

Groupthink

a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, and when members’ strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise certain courses of action.

Consensus

reached when all members can say they either agree with the decision or have had their chance to speak their minds and were unable to convince the others of their viewpoint; everyone agrees to support the outcome

Brainstorming

helps groups generate multiple ideas and alternatives for solving problems.

Delphi technique

a group process that generates anonymous ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts in multiple rounds of brainstorming.

Decision support system

computer-based interactive systems that help decision makers to use data and models to solve unstructured problems.

confirmation bias

Pertains to how we selectively gather information

overconfidence bias

Results in overestimating our skills relative to those of others and overestimating the accuracy of our predictions

availability bias

a decision maker’s tendency to base decisions on information readily available in memory

representativeness bias

Leads us to look for information that supports previously formed stereotypes

anchoring bias

Occurs when decision makers are influenced by the first information they receive about a decision, even if it is irrelevant

hindsight bias

Occurs when knowledge of an outcome influences our belief about the probability that we could have predicted the outcome earlier

framing bias

Relates to the manner in which a question is posed or framed. It leads us to change the way we interpret alternatives

escalation of commitment bias

The tendency to hold to an ineffective course of action even when it is unlikely the bad situation can be reversed

Power

The ability to marshal human, informational, and other resources to get something done; the discretion and the means to enforce your will over others

Legitimate power

derived from a position of authority inside the organization and is sometimes referred to as “formal authority”

Reward power

exists when someone has control over the resources or rewards another person wants; obtains compliance by promising/granting rewards

Coercive power

exists when a person has control over punishments in an organization; operates primarily on the principle of fear

Expert power

derived from a person’s expertise, skill, or knowledge on which others depend

Referent power

exists when one’s personal characteristics and social relationships are used to gain compliance; others have a desire to identify and be associated with a person

Position power

Power associated with a job or position. Includes…

• Legitimate Power

• Reward Power

• Coercive Power

Personal power

Power independent of job or position. Includes…

• Expert Power

• Referent Power

Resistance

least desired response to an influence attempt

Compliance

when a person does only what has been asked, no more or no less; will do only what is required but not go above and beyond

Commitment

occurs when a person really buys into a request/influence attempt; they believe in the cause and often go above and beyond to ensure its success. This is the best type of response from the influencer’s perspective

Empowerment

Efforts to enhance employee performance, well-being, and positive attitudes by:

• Giving employees greater influence

• Transferring authority and responsibilities from management to employees

Structural empowerment

Based on transferring authority and responsibilities from management to employees

Psychological empowerment

Occurs when employees feel a sense of:

• Meaning

• Competence

• Self-Determination

• Impact at Work

Influence tactics

Conscious efforts to affect and change a specific behavior in others

rational persuasion

trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts

inspirational appeals

trying to build enthusiasm by appealing others’ emotions, ideals or values

consultation

getting others to provide insights, experience or information you can use in planning and making decisions

integration

getting someone in a good mood prior to making a request

personal appeals

referring to friendship and loyalty when making a request

exchange

making explicit or implied promises and trading favors

coalition tactics

getting others to support your efforts to persuade someone

pressure

demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats

legitimating tactics

basing a request on authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or explicit/implied support from superiors

liking

ppl tend to like those who like them

reciprocity

societal norm that says good and bad deeds should be repaid in kind is virtually universak

social proof

people tend to follow the lead of those most like themselves.

consistency

people tend to do what they commit to, especially publicly or to others

authority

people tend to defer to and respect credible experts

scarcity

people want items, information, and opportunities that have limited availability