ap bio midterm units 1-4

_______ & ________ from the environment are necessary to build new molecules.

_____________ is used to build biological molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

carbon is used in ____________ compounds and ______ formation in all organisms. 

_____________ is used to build proteins and nucleic acids.

______________ is used to build nucleic acids and certain lipids.

______________ and _____________ synthesis are used to cleave and form covalent bonds between _____________.

structure and function of ______________ are derived from the way their monomers are assembled.

in nucleic acids, biological information is encoded in sequences of ____________ monomers.

each nucleotide has structural components: a ______-carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), a ___________, and a ___________ base (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil).

_______ and ______ differ in structure and function.

in proteins, the specific _________ of amino acids in a ___________ (primary structure) determines the overall ________ of the protein.

amino acids have _____________, with an ________ (NH2) terminus and a __________ (COOH) terminus.

the R group of an amino acid can be categorized by chemical properties (______________, ______________, or _______),

the interactions of R groups determine ____________ and function of that region of the protein.

 complex __________________ comprise sugar monomers whose structures determine the properties and functions of the molecules. 

_________ are nonpolar macromolecules.

differences in _________________ determine the structure and function of lipids

_________________ contain polar regions that interact with other _________ molecules, such as water, and with nonpolar regions that are often hydrophobic. 

directionality of the _________________ influences structure and function of the polymer.

proteins comprise linear chains of amino acids, connected by the formation of ________________ bonds at the ___________ terminus of the growing peptide chain.

proteins have primary structure determined by the sequence order of their constituent ________ acids.

proteins have secondary structure that arises through local ___________ of the amino acid chain into elements such as _______-helices and ______-sheets.

proteins have tertiary structure that is the overall ________-dimensional shape of the protein and often minimizes _______ energy.

proteins have quaternary structure that arises from interactions between multiple ____________ units.

__________________ comprise linear chains of sugar monomers connected by covalent bonds.

carbohydrate ______________ may be linear or branched.

________________ comprise ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein. 

endoplasmic reticulum (ER) occurs in two forms—_________ and _________. 

____________ ER is associated with membrane-bound ribosomes.

_________ ER compartmentalizes the cell.

_________ ER functions include detoxification and lipid synthesis.

the ________ complex is a membrane-bound structure that consists of a series of flattened membrane sacs

functions of the _________ include the correct folding and chemical modification of newly synthesized proteins.

_______________ have a double membrane. The outer membrane is _______________, but the inner membrane is highly convoluted, forming folds.

_______________ are membrane-enclosed sacs that contain hydrolytic _____________. 

a ___________ is a membrane-bound sac that plays many and differing roles. In __________, a specialized large vacuole serves multiple functions. 

_____________ are specialized organelles that are found in photosynthetic algae and plants, and have a ________ outer membrane.

organelles and subcellular structures, and the interactions among them, support cellular ________.

endoplasmic reticulum provides ____________ support, carries out _________ synthesis on membrane-bound ribosomes, and plays a role in ____________ transport.

mitochondrial double membrane provides compartments for different ____________ reactions.

lysosomes contain hydrolytic _________, which are important in intracellular ____________, the ___________ of a cell’s organic materials, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). 

the folding of the inner membrane __________ the surface area, which allows for more _____ to be synthesized.

within the chloroplast are __________ and the _________.

thylakoids are organized in stacks, called _______.

membranes contain chlorophyll _________ and electron transport _________ that comprise the photosystems.

the light-______________ reactions of photosynthesis occur in the grana.

the _________ is the fluid within the inner chloroplast membrane and outside of the thylakoid.

the carbon fixation (calvin-cycle) reactions of photosynthesis occur in the _________.

the krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) reactions occur in the matrix of the ______________.

electron transport and ATP synthesis occur on the inner ______________ membrane.

organisms have evolved highly efficient strategies to obtain nutrients and eliminate ________.

cells and organisms use specialized __________ surfaces to obtain and release molecules from or into the ____________ environment.

_______________ have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.

the ____________ phosphate regions of the phospholipids are oriented toward the aqueous external or internal environments.

the ______________ fatty acid regions of the phospholipids face each other within the interior of the membrane. 

_____________ proteins can be hydrophilic, with charged and polar side groups, or hydrophobic, with nonpolar side groups.

cell membranes consist of a structural framework of phospholipid molecules that is embedded with proteins, ___________ (such as cholesterol in eukaryotes), ____________, and ____________ that can flow around the surface of the cell within the membrane.

the structure of cell membranes results in ____________ permeability. 

cell membranes __________ the internal environment of the cell from the external environment.

___________ permeability is a direct consequence of membrane structure, as described by the fluid mosaic model.

small _____________ molecules, including N2, O2, and CO2 , freely pass across the membrane.

hydrophilic substances, such as large __________ molecules and ions, move across the membrane through embedded channels and transport proteins.

_________ uncharged molecules, including ______, pass through the membrane in small amounts.

________ _______ provide a structural boundary, as well as a permeability barrier for some substances to the internal environments. 

cell walls of plants, prokaryotes, and fungi are composed of complex ______________.

passive transport is the net movement of molecules from ____ concentration to ______ concentration without the direct input of metabolic energy.

__________ transport plays a primary role in the import of materials and the export of wastes.

active transport requires the direct input of energy to move molecules from regions of ____ concentration to regions of ____ concentration.

the ___________ permeability of membranes allows for the formation of concentration gradients of solutes across the membrane.

the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis require ________ to move ________ molecules into and out of cells.

in _____________, internal vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and secrete large macromolecules out of the cell.

in _______________, the cell takes in macromolecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles derived from the plasma membrane.

membrane proteins are required for facilitated ___________ of charged and large polar molecules through a membrane

large quantities of water pass through ______________. 

charged ions, including Na+ and K+, require __________ proteins to move through the membrane.

membranes may become ____________ by movement of ions across a membrane.

membrane proteins are necessary for _________ transport. 

____________ energy (such as from ATP) is required for _________ transport of molecules and/ or ions across the membrane and to establish and maintain concentration gradients. 

the Na+/K+ ATPase contributes to the _________________ of the membrane potential.

___________ environments can be hypotonic, hypertonic or isotonic to internal environments of cells.

water moves by ____________ from areas of high water potential/low osmolarity/ low solute concentration to areas of low water potential/high osmolarity/high solute concentration.

______ water potential—>_____ water potential

______ osmolarity—>_____ osmolarity

______ solute concentration—>_____ solute concentration

Ψp

Ψs

_______ = Ψs + Ψp

growth and homeostasis are maintained by the constant ___________ of molecules across membranes.

_________________ maintains water balance and allows organisms to control their internal solute composition/water potential.

Ψs = −iCRT 

i

c

r (0.0831)

t (in kelvin (°C + 273))

a variety of processes allow for the movement of ions and other molecules __________ membranes, including passive and active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.

membranes and membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotic cells compartmentalize ____________ metabolic processes and specific ____________ reactions. 

____________ membranes facilitate cellular processes by minimizing competing interactions and by increasing surface areas where reactions can occur.

membrane-bound organelles evolved from once free-living prokaryotic cells via ________________.

__________________ generally lack internal membrane bound organelles but have internal regions with specialized structures and functions. 

the structure of enzymes includes the active site that specifically interacts with ________ molecules.