BASICS OF CHEMISTRY

• All matter is made up of atoms and molecules

• Molecules are held together by chemical bonds

ORGANIC MOLECULES

• A molecule consists of carbon and (usually) hydrogen

• Macromolecules a.k.a. polymers are “giant molecules”

  • Macromolecules are made up of monomers, or smaller subunits that are bonded together

The 4 main types of Macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins

CARBOHYDRATES (CH2O)n

• The elements of carbs are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. (1:2:1 ratio)

• Common types of carbs are sugar and starch

• Functions of carbs is to provide short term energy and structure in cell plants.

• Building blocks:

  • Monosaccharide: one saccharide (e.g. glucose)

  • Disaccharide: two saccharides (e.g. sucrose)

  • Polysaccharides: many saccharides (e.g. starch)

• Making carbs is dehydration synthesis. (removing water)

  • Two smaller carbs come together to form a bigger molecule

• Breaking carbs is hydrolysis. (adding water)

  • Breaking apart complex carbs into simple sugars (polysaccharide + water = two monosaccharides)

LIPIDS

• Elements of lipids are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.

• Common types of lipids are fats, oils, waxes, & steroids.

• Functions of lipids are long term energy, insulation, water-proofing, shock absorption.

• Building blocks of lipids are 3 fatty acids and glycerol.

• Saturated fats (solid at room temp) and unsaturated fats (liquid at room temp)

  • Example of saturated fat is butter

  • Example of unsaturated fat is oil

NUCLEIC ACIDS

Elements of nucleic acids are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus.

• There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA

  • DNA: double stranded

  • RNA: single stranded

• Nucleic acids function as genetic storage.

• Building blocks of nucleic acids are nucleotides.

  • Nucleotides are made up of carbon sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen.

PROTEINS

• Elements of proteins are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen.

• Proteins function as working enzymes and structural support.

• Common types of proteins are collagen and keratin.

• Building blocks of proteins are amino acids.

  • Amino acids are held together by peptide bonds.

  • There are 20 kinds of amino acids.

• A different protein shape leads to a different function.

• Enzymes

  • Enzymes are used to regulate the speed of chemical reactions.

  • All enzymes are proteins but not all proteins are enzymes.

  • Each chemical that is worked on by an enzyme is called a substrate. The enzyme and substrate link up at a specific area called an active site.

  • Enzymes change the reactant (what you start with) to a product (what you make).

  • Enzymes can be reused/recycled.

  • Activation energy is the energy need to start a reaction

    • Living things reduce the amount of energy needed by using catalysts

  • Changing the shape of an enzyme affects its function.

    • Changing the shape of an enzyme to the point where it no longer works is called denaturation (this can be caused by high temperatures or being placed in the wrong pH)

  • The factors affecting enzyme activity are temperature, pH, substrate concentration

    • Enzymes work best at an optimal, or “peak” temperature

    • Enzymes also work best at an optimal pH

    • Enzyme activity will increase with substrate concentration up until a certain point, where it will remain the same

THE STUDY OF LIFE

• Life started more than 3.5 billion years ago

• Life started as simple things and evolved into more complex things

• An organism is any living thing

WHAT MAKES A LIVING THING?

• CELLS: all living things are made up of cells

  • A cell is the smallest unit of organization of a living thing. It is a collection of living matter enclosed by a barrier called the plasma membrane

    • Cells are organized, with special parts that each perform particular functions

    • Cells are different from one another

  • A living thing can be “unicellular” (one-celled )

    • bacterium, protests, amoebas, and paramecia

  • Most organisms are multicellular, and can have up to trillions of cells

• RESPONSE TO STIMULI: a stimulus is a change in the environment

  • A living thing will respond to this change in the environment by using their senses (eyes, ears, etc)

  • Homeostasis: the ability of a living thing to keep its internal environment the same regardless of change

• RESPIRE: living things need to intake gasses in order to breathe

• REQUIRE NUTRIENTS: all organisms have a metabolism (which is all the chemical reactions that occur in the body)

  • All living things need to eat in order to produce energy

  • Living things that require food from an outside source are consumers/heterotrophs

  • Living things that make their own food are known as producers/autotrophs

• GROWTH: all living things grow and develop (this could mean a change in height, width, weight, etc)

  • All organisms begin their lives as single cells

  • Growth results in an increase in the amount of of living material and the formation of new structures

• TRANSPORTATION/LOCOMOTION: most living things move to survive (plants do not move but they “move” as they grow

  • Absorption is when dissolved substances are taken into the body

  • Circulation is the distribution of the materials throughout the organism

• EXCRETION: it is the process of getting rid of unused materials in the body (e.g. urine in humans)

  • All living things need to remove waste from the body

  • Getting rid of metabolic wastes

• REPRODUCE: all living things have the ability to reproduce, although they do not need to reproduce to survive. However, reproduction is essential for the continuation of an organism’s species.

  • Asexual reproduction requires one organism

  • Sexual reproduction requires two organisms