Cultural Transformations in Science (Ways of the World 3^rd Edition)

Birth of Modern Science

-Scientific Revolution: mid- 16^th to early 18^th century

-Knowledge is acquired through rational thinking based on evidence

-Altered ideas of the humankind’s faith

-During this time, the authority and teachings of the church was questioned

-Legitimized inequalities amongst the people

-becomes open to those who accepted it

-Europe’s development provided ideal conditions to advance science

-Legal revolution was based on cooperation

-Autonomy of emerging universities

-Study of natural order is separate from philosophy and theology

-Great affiliation with the universities

In the Islamic World

-Quranic studies and religious law were amongst the most discussed

-Philosophy and natural science were in great question

-It was believed that Quran held all wisdom and science

-Western Europe was in the state to draw from other cultures (especially Islam)

-Led to the birth of European philosophy (1000- 1500)

-During the 16^th- 18^th centuries, Europe becomes center of the new exchange of information

-Makes room for new conceptions and ideas

-The ground of modern science was made from the uncertainties of established views

-Girolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician, believed ‘certainties will be exchanged for uncertainties”

-Reformation also pays contribution to the cultural climate in the sense of challenging it

-Encourages mass literacy, “and affirmation of secular possessions”

Science as a Cultural Revolution

-Before such revolution, views of the world derived from Ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle and Ptolemy

-Medieval thinkers believed the Earth was the center of the universe and everything revolved around it; this matches the views of the catholic church

-The scientific revolution challenges this understanding of the universe

-It begins with Polish mathematician and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus who claimed in the “middle of all things lies the sun” and everything else revolves around it

-To add on, some claimed that there were other inhabited worlds where other humans existed

-Early 17^th Century: Johannes Kepler, German mathematician, proposed the idea that planets followed elliptical orbits

-Italian Galileo comes up with an improved telescope

-Some thinkers begin to believe that humans are only a speck of the universe

-Culmination came in Sir Isaac Newton’s work, an Englishman

-He formulates the laws of motion and mechanics

-Brings upon the idea of universal gravitation

-Universe was not seen to function by super- natural forces but as the principles discovered by scientists

-Dissections enable documents to explain the human body with mere accuracy

-Almost all males in such advancements and ideas

Science and Enlightenments

-Scientific revolution spreads to more people during the 18^th century

-The new approaches of knowledge was not just seen in the physical universe but in human society as well

-If humans could come up with laws that support the universe, it was believe that they could do the same for human society

-In this case, “it might govern itself more effectively”

-All thinkers believed in the power to alter human society

-This included the question of women’s role in society

-“Human virtue and improvement” must be checked, inequality between the races

Looking Ahead: Science in the 19^th Century

-Perspectives of the Enlightenment continued to be challenged by the development of science

-Charles Darwin: laid out an argument that was in constant change and the struggle of survival led to creation of new species

-Karl Max: described the evolution of human civilization by using historical research

-Sigmund Freud: applies scientific methods on the operation of the human mind and emotions

-The modern alterations have greatly changed from the original Scientific revolution that began in the 12^thcentury.