EXAM III STUDY GUIDE

The exam will consist of 50 questions that are multiple choice, true/false, and matching. The exam is closed note, closed neighbor.

Questions will be from anything discussed in the textbook chapters, video lectures, documentaries and labs with emphasis on the following topics:

Chapter 9 – Immune System and Mechanisms of Defense and Lab 8 – Immunity

• List and explain the innate immune system defenses.

  • First level: physical and chemical barriers

    • Tears, saliva, skin, large intestine, mucus

  • Second level: nonspecific defense

    • Defensive cells and proteins (aka complement system—put holes in bacteria so salt goes in and EXPLODES bacteria)

    • Phagocytes: white blood cells that destroy foreign cells

      • Neutrophils respond first; respond to infection and eat foreign cells

      • Macrophages next; eat *a lot* of foreign cells and dead tissue

      • Eosinophils eat parasites, or invaders that are too big for other white blood cells

    • Inflammation and fever

      • Swelling, especially where immunity cells go

        • Connective tissue (aka mast cells) release histamine (dialates blood vessels)

  • Third level: specific defenses

    • B cells: white blood cells from bone marrow

      • Can create antibodies through memory B cells (they remember what antigen they fought)

    • T cells: fighter/killer/destroyer cells

      • All brawn no brain, directly attack foreign cells that carry antigen

      • Can’t produce antibodies

      • Found in thymus

• Explain the role and function of the five types of Leukocytes (white blood cells)

  • Neutrophil- First to fight infection from bacteria and some fungi

  • Macrophages- same as monocytes but belong in blood vs monocytes that are in the tissues. Both clean up/remove dead cells

  • Eosinophils - Identify & destroy parasites, cancer cells. Assists basophils with allergic response

  • Monocytes- defends against infection by cleaning up damaged cells

  • Basophils- makes the allergic response (coughing, sneezing etc)

  • Lymphocytes- T Cells, Killer cells and B cells protect the body from viral infections. Produce proteins to assist infection fight

• Explain specific and nonspecific immunity.

  • Non-specific: don’t target specific pathogens

    • Fight all health challenges; no discrimination

  • Specific: targets specific enemies

    • Recognizes foreign cells/pathogens

    • Memorizes antigen from past exposure

    • Protects entire body

• Explore the role of the skin and accessory structures in relation to innate defenses.

  • Most important barrier

  • 4 key attributes:

    • Structure

      • Outermost layer= dead epithelial cells w/ protein called keratin that creates dry, tough, and elastic barrier against microorganisms

    • Constantly replenishing self

    • Acidic pH

      • pH level of 5 - 6; low pH = hostile for many microorg.

    • Produces antibodies in sweat glands

      • Secrete dermcidin: antimicrobial peptide; effective against harmful bacteria and fungi

• Compare the complement system, fever, and inflammation.

  • Complement system: plasma proteins that activate only in presence of infection

    • Create protein complex in bacteria (holes)

    • Water and salt enter holes and expands bacteria until it bursts

  • Inflammation: occurs when tissue is damaged; creates heat, swelling, and pain

    • Prevent damage from spreading, disposes debris and pathogens, and allows for tissue repair

  • Fever: abnormally high body temperature which increases metabolic rate which speeds up tissue repair and defense mechanisms

    • Normal temp. = 97°F- 99°F

    • Goes above 100° or lasts longer than 2 days, seek medical advice

• Relate fever and inflammation to feelings of fatigue during illness.

  • Tired/fluffy bc immune system working hard fighting known viruses

• Describe the role of phagocytes.

  • First, captures bacterium

  • engulfs it (eats it)

  • Encloses it in membrane bound vesicle (in stomach)

  • Vesicle contains lysosomes, which fuses w/ bacteria (digestive system)

  • Enzymes in lysomes digest bacteria

  • Phagocytes poops out digested bacteria

• Relate the structures/organs of the lymphatic system to their functions.

  • Lymphatic system: helps maintain blood volume and interstitial fluid volume in the cardiovascular system; also protects body from diseases

    • Structures:

      • lymphatic capillaries: carries lymph (fluid which carries white blood cells, proteins, fats, and sometimes bacteria and virus) to all parts of body

      • Lymph nodes: remove cellular debris, abnormal cells, and microorganisms

      • Thymus gland: contains lymphocytes and epithelial cells

        • Secretes thymosin and thymopoiesis (mature T cells)

      • Tonsils: lymphatic tissue in throat

      • Spleen: (1) controls quality of circulating red blood cells by removing bad ones (2) fights infections

        • Red pulp tissue break down microorganisms w/ macrophages

        • White pulp tissue contains lymphocytes for foreign pathogens

• Explain the role of antigens and antibodies in relation to blood type.

  • Antigens: generally part of bacteria and fungi; large proteins or polysaccharides

    • Unique shapes; like a key

  • Antibodies: proteins that bind w/ antigen to neutralize it

    • Created by B memory cells

  • Blood types and antigens and antibodies

    • O = universal donor

    • AB= universal receiver

In other words, think of blood as the head. O is the one giving head while AB is the one receiving head.

• Discuss effective ways of protecting the immune system and staying healthy.

  • Washing hands with soap and water

  • Exercise

  • Eat well

  • Be physically active

  • Maintain a healthy weight

  • Get enough sleep

  • Avoid (too much) alcohol

  • Quit (or don't start) smoking

Chapter 16 – Reproductive Systems, Documentary “Why Sex?”, and Lab 9 Reproduction

• Explain the functions of the reproductive system.

  • Tissues and organs used to create another human being

    • Ultimate goal: get sperm to fertilize egg

• Trace the pathway of sperm through the male reproductive system and the role of the glands that produce semen.

  • Testes -> epididymis->ductus (vas) deferens-> ejaculatory duct -> prostatic urethra -> penis

• List the functions of the female reproductive organs.

• Outline the hormonal controls in the male reproductive system.

  • Testosterone: steroid hormone

  • Three hormones:

    • Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): stimulates production of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); is in the hypothalamus

      • Hypothalamus secretes GnRH -> stimulates pituitary gland to secrete LH and FSH->LH makes interstitial cells produce/secrete testosterone -> FSH enhances sperm formation by stimulating sertoli cells -> Testosterone also stimulates sertoli cells

• Describe the two interacting hormonal cycles of the female reproductive system.

  • Menstrual cycle= ovarian + uterine cycle

    • Menstrual cycle: consists of ovarian cycle and uterine cycle;

    • Ovarian cycle: regular pattern of growth, maturation, and release of oocytes (immature eggs)

      • Corpus luteum secretes progesterone to prepare for fertilized egg

      • Corpus luteum degenerates after 12 days if fertilization≠ occur

    • Uterine cycle: series of structural and functional changes that happen to prepare the body for pregnancy

      • Linked to ovarian cycle

      • Beginning of menstruation; aka first day of period

• List the main categories of sexually transmitted infections or diseases.

  • Sexually transmitteed infection (STIs):

  • Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs): transmitted through sexual contact, gential, oral-genital, or anal-genital

    • Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, anthropods

    • Ex.: syphilis, gonorrhea, chlymida, AIDS, Hep B

• Describe the treatments for the most common STDs.

  • Penicillin, antibiotics, vaccines, medicine/drugs

Documentary “Why Sex?”

• Explain sexual reproduction in the context of the theory of evolution.

  • It is the best defense against bacteria, viruses, and other rapidly evolving organisms because it presents new challenges to those entities. “The Red Queen” explanation states it is a race of survival between competitive species.

• Why male and female reproductive organs are different if they originate from the same tissues during development.

  • As explained in a lecture, the reproductive organs are different because of the hormones they receive. DHT is the hormone that produces the development of the genitals, while testosterone is the hormone for sperm development and the penis.

• The unusual reproductive strategy of the Texas lizards studied by Jerry Johnson.

• Why wild extravagances in nature (such as antlers, bright colors, etc.) are seen in either the male or the female of a species, but not both, in sexually reproducing organisms.

  • The wild extravagances are seen as attractions to the opposite sex. For example, male peacocks have colorful and wide tails, and the wider and more colorful they are the more healthier they appear. Therefore, they are more desirable.

• Why monogamy is important in some sexually reproducing species.

  • Lower risk of STD

  • Prevents male partner from leaving after sex (?)

    • In the video, they explained that the female can’t raise the kids alone and the kids would die; It is a social solution to safely raise kids.

• The traditional roles of caregiving to the young and how they may differ. o The similarities and differences in related species (EX: Bonobos and Chimpanzees).

Chapter 21 – Development, Maturation, Aging & Death and Lab 10 – Development

• Explain the differences between cleavage, differentiation, and morphogenesis

  • Cleavage: series of cell divisions without cell growth or differentiation during first four days of following fertilization

    • Produces ball of identical cells same size as zygote

  • Differentiation: process where cells become specialized

  • Morphogenesis: process of changing into a fetus

    • Layers of different cells-> pre-embryo-> embryo with human-ish features->fetus

• Explain the events of fertilization and implantation and when each major event occurs
  (in days/weeks).

  • Week 1-2:

    • Pre-embryonic stage:

      • Day 1-3: conception (fertilization of egg, aka zygote) in oviduct

      • Day 4: morula (32 identical cells resulted from cleavage)

      • Days 5-7: morula turns to blastocyst, implants in uterine wall

      • Week 2: blastocyst fills w/ amniotic fluid (for wase and nutrient exchange)

  • Week 3-8:

    • Embryo stage: organs and systems established but not fully functional

      • Placenta (filter) and umbilical cord (lifeline connecting to placenta and embryo’s circulation) created

      • Week 3: brain and spinal cord in the making and so are muscles, bones, and skin (mesoderm)

      • Week 4: heart develops, head takes shape, eyes positioned, limb nubs and tail

      • Weeks 5-8: general vertebrae of human forming. nutrients and waste exchanged even more effectively

      • Week 6: genitalia begin developing (XX, XY)

  • Weeks 9-birth:

    • Fetus stage:

      • Month 3 (first trimester over): kidenys, limbs, bones/teeth, spleen, liver formed and functioning

        • Sex can be determined

      • Month 4: liver and bone marrow create red blood cells and face almost in final form

      • Months 5: nervous system ans skeletal muscles formed enough for fetus to move. Hair and skin formed. Heart beat can be heard

      • Month 6 (end of second tri.): lungs surfactant (phospholipids and proteins prevent collapsing) and hear external sounds

      • Months 7-9: rapid growth and maturation. Lungs and digestive system=functioning

• Outline the function of the three germ layers in the embryo and the organs they
  eventually develop into.

  • Endoderm: Innermost Cell Layer; forms digestive and respiratory tract

  • Ectoderm: Outer Layer; forms skin, nervous system, and parts of face/neck

  • Mesoderm: Middle Layer; forms muscle, blood vessel, connective tissues and beginning of bones.

• Describe the formation and functioning of the placenta.

  • Placenta: Massive filter for diffusion

    • Exchanges nutrients, gasses, antibodies, embryonic wastes, and hormones

    • Can be damaged by HIV, alcohol, and any kind of drugs

• Explain how fetal circulation differs from the mothers’ circulation. What materials (i.e. nutrients, waste, gases, etc.) are passed between mother and developing offspring and how are the materials passed?

  • Nutrients and waste diffuse down concentration gradient between fetus and mother

  • while in the womb the fetus is incapable of using gas exchange and instead relies on its mother in order to receives its nutrients via the umbilical cord

    • The oxygen-laden, nutrient-rich blood from the placenta enters the fetus via the umbilical vein.

    • Some of the blood flows through the liver, but most of it bypasses the liver and joins the inferior vena cava of the fetus via the ductus venosus (venous duct).

    • In the inferior vena cava, the nutrient-rich blood mixes with the venous blood of the fetus.

    • Most of the blood that enters the fetal heart must bypass the fetal lungs because they too are not fully developed.

    • Some of the blood passes from the right atrium to the left atrium through the foramen ovale, and some is shunted from the pulmonary artery directly to the aorta via the ductus arteriosus.

    • Even though the fetal lungs are not yet functional and the digestive tract is not receiving nutrients, the aortic blood still has sufficient oxygen and nutrients (brought to the fetus via the umbilical vein) to supply all the fetal tissues.

    • Some of the fetal arterial blood returns to the placenta via the umbilical arteries.

    • In the placenta, the blood again picks up nutrients and oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide generated by fetal metabolism.

• Discuss how hormonal imbalances can affect fetal development

• Discuss the developmental risks associated with smoking, drinking, using recreational
  and/or prescription drugs during development.b

  • Fetal alcohol syndrome

  • Premature birth

• Discuss stem cells: what they do for the developing embryo and how they are used in science.

Chapter 17 – Cell Reproduction and Differentiation and Labs 10 & 11

• Describe the structure and function of DNA.

  • DNA is made of nucleotides composed of one sugar, one phosphate, and one nitrogenous base

  • Functions of DNA:

    • Replication: the process of copying the cell’s DNA prior to cell division

    • Transcription: the process of creating a coded message of one gene (a segment in DNA that has the code/recipe for protein(s)) that can be carried out of nucleus

    • Translation: converting the coded message into proteins useful for cell

• Explain the origin of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in our body cells.

  • One set of 23 chromosomes are from each parent

• Explain the difference between somatic cells and gamete cells and the number of
  chromosomes each cell contains.

  • Somatic cells are reproductive cells from humans - 46 chromosomes

  • Gamete cells are reproductive cells from plants or animals- 23 chromosomes

• Define haploid and diploid.

  • Meiosis cells are haploid cells (4 cells).

  • Mitosis are diploid cells (2 cells).

• Describe and explain the stages of the cell cycle including: interphase, mitosis, meiosis,and cytokinesis. What happens during interphase and cytokinesis?

• Meiosis: 4 haploid cells

  • Prophase 1

    • Meiosis includes steps very similar to those of mitosis, the main difference being the formation of tetrads in prophase 1

  • Metaphase 1

    • Tetrads are pairs of homologous chromosomes that remain close to one another until they are pulled apart in anaphase 1

  • Anaphase 1

    • Crossing over offers even more genetic variation as the ends of these chromosomes are close enough to swap material

  • Telophase 1

    • Telophase 1 then forms two cells that enclose doubled copies of half the chromosomes of the original diploid cell

  • The newly formed cells then immediately go into prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II. No DNA replication occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II. These phases operate as those in mitosis, resulting in four haploid cells, however in mitosis, there is only PPMAT once.

  • Interphase

    • growth period where cells grow and DNA is duplicated in preparation for next cell division

  • Cytokinesis

    • end result is 2 cells for mitosis, and 4 daughter cells in meiosis

• Describe and explain the stages of mitosis and meiosis. Why are there two rounds of nuclear division in meiosis and only one in mitosis?

  • Because meiosis is a reproductive cell, and the end result of meiosis produces 4 cells while mitosis produces 2 cells

• Describe the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis and the purpose of each type of nuclear division.

  • Similarities: PPMAT 1st phase has similar way of forming cells

  • Differences: mitosis produces 2 daughter cells while meiosis produces 4 daughter cells

Chapter 19 – Genetics and Inheritance and Lab 11 – Inheritance & Genetics (including mitosis/meiosis - continuation of chapter 17)

• Define the terms:

  • Gene, - recipes for specific proteins, section of DNA

  • allele, - different variations of a gene

  • dominant, - dominates in determining the phenotype

  • recessive, - masked by the domain trait

  • genotype, - what alleles you possess for a trait

  • phenotype, - physical appearance of a trait

  • homozygous, - pair of dominant or recessive alleles

  • and heterozygous. - one of each type of allele

• Explain the interaction of dominant and recessive alleles.

  • DD x Dd

• DD x dd

• Dd x dd

• Dd x Dd

• Describe how alleles can express phenotypes of complete dominance, incomplete dominance, co-dominance, and polygenic inheritance and give examples.

  • Dominant allele: overpowers recessive phenotype

    • Ex.: dimples= dominant, no dimples= recessive

  • incomplete dominance: heterozygous genotype that results in a phenotype that is “in between” of two homozygous phenotypes

    • Ex.: straight hair + curly hair = wavy hair

  • Co-dominance: products of both alleles expressed equally

    • Ex.: sickle cell anemia; if two ppl have sickle cell trait and have children, ea. Child will have 25% chance of being normal, 50% chance having the trait, and 25% chance of having sickle cell amenia

  • poly genic inheritance: phenotypes that are influenced by many genes; isn’t exact copy of parents’ genes

    • Ex.: body type, skin color, height, etc.

• Explain sex-linked traits and give examples.

  • sex-linked traits occur on the x chromosome

  • women can be carriers or affected by sex-linxed traits

  • men on the other hand are affected by the sex-linked since they only have one x chromosome

    • examples of sex-linked traits are fragile x, hemophilia, color blindness, and klinefelter syndrome

• Set up and analyze a Punnett square for autosomal traits and sex-linked traits.

  • Autosomal traits: from chromosomes 1 - 22, not including sex chromosomes

    • Ex. : baldness (N= normal, n= pattern baldness)

  • Sex-linked traits:

    • Ex.: X-linked disease: hemophilia (h= blood doesnt clot, H= blood clots)

Nn x nn

Hh x Hh

• Determine the probability of offspring having a particular genotype and/or phenotype based on the parents’ genotype and/or phenotype.

• Explain what mutation is and the role of mutation in variation within the human
  population.

  • definition: a change in the DNA base pair sequence of a cell.

  • role: to provide challenges to environmental stressors such as competitors, virus, and pathogens

• Explain chromosomal (genetic) disorders and describe those discussed in lecture and lab including examples of harmless and deleterious mutations and sex-linked disorders.

  • chromosomal disorders refers to those controlled by genes on the autosomes

    • sex-linked disorders occur on the x chromosome

  • harmless: tongue rolling, freckles, dimples

  • deleterious: sickle cell disease, baldness

  • sex-linked disorders: fragile x and klinefelter syndrome, hemophilia, color blindness