CHEMISTRY
Atoms:
Matter is made up of atoms
Atoms join together to from chemicals
Proton= positive charge, 1 mass unit
Neutron= neutral, 1 mass unit
Electron= negative charge, low mass
Atomic Structure
Atomic number= number of protons
Mass number= number of protons plus neutrons
Nucleus contains protons and neutrons
Electron cloud contains protons
neutrons= atomic mass - atomic
Elements- determined by atomic number of atoms
Atomic number= number of protons
Isotopes- a version of an element based on its mass number
Mass number= number of protons plus the number of neutrons
Only neutrons are different because number of protons determines the element
Atomic Weights= Average of the mass numbers of the isotopes
Electrons and Energy Levels
Electrons determine the reactivity of an atom
The electron cloud contains shells, or energy levels that hold a maximum number of electrons
Lower shells first
Outermost shell is the valence shell, and it determines bonding
The number of electrons per shell corresponds to the number of atoms in that row of the periodic table
Bonds:
Ionic Bonds
One atom loses one or more electrons and becomes a cation, with a positive charge
Another atom gains those same electron and becomes an anion, with a negative charge
Attraction between the opposite charges then draws the two ions together
Covalent Bonds- the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms
One electron is donated by each atom to make the pair of electrons
Sharing one pair of electrons is a single covalent bond
sharing two pairs= double covalent bond
sharing three pairs= triple covalent bond
Nonpolar covalent bonds- equal sharing of electrons because of equal pull for the electrons
Polar covalent bonds- unequal sharing of electrons because one atom has a disproportionately strong pull on the electrons forming polar molecules- like water
Hydrogen Bonds are bonds between adjacent molecules, not atoms
Involve slightly positive and slightly negative portions of polar molecules being attracted to one another
Hydrogen bonds between H2O molecules cause surface tension
Importance of Water:
water- two-thirds of total body weight
solubility- water’s ability to dissolve a solute in a solvent to make a solution
reactivity- most body chemistry occurs in water
high heat capacity- water’s ability to absorb and retain heat
lubrication- to moisten and reduce friction
pH- concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) in a solution
Neutral pH is a balance of H+ and OH-
pure water=7.0
pH of human blood ranges from 7.35 to 7.45
Acidic- pH lower than 7.0
basic (or alkaline)- pH higher than 7.0
pH Scale- more than H+ ions mean lower pH, less H+ ions mean higher pH
Organic Molecules:
Contain H, C, and usually O
Covalently bonded
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ina 1:2:1 ratio
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbon atoms
Glucose, fructose, galactose= C6H12O6
glucose= sugar in blood
fructose= fruits
galactose= milk
Disaccharides
Two simple sugars condensed by dehydration synthesis
Sucrose, maltose, lactose= C12H22O11
Sucrose- table sugar (sugar cane)
glucose + fructose= sucrose
maltose- malt sugar (from grains)
glucose + glucose= maltose
lactose- milk
Polysaccharides
Glucose molecules condensed by dehydration synthesis
Glycogen, starch, cellulose
glycogen- stored animal starch in liver + muscles
starch- food for embryonic seed or to store glucose
cellulose- plant cell walls + provides fiber
Lipids:
Mainly hydrophobic molecules such as fats, oils, and waxes
Made mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms
Fatty Acids
Long chains of a carbon and hydrogen with a carboxylic acid group (COOH) at one one end
Fatty acids may be
Saturated with hydrogen (no double covalent bonds)
Unsaturated (one or more double bonds):
monounsaturated= one double bond
polyunsaturated= two or more double bond
Prostaglandins- local hormones, short- chain fatty acids
Triglycerides- three fatty-acid tails attached to a glycerol molecule
Functions: energy source, insulation, protection
Steroids
Four rings of carbon and hydrogen with an assortment of functional groups
Types of steroids:
Cholesterol is a component of plasma (cell) membrane
Estrogens and testosterone are sex hormones
Corticosteroids and calcitriol function in metabolic regulation
Bile salts are derived from steroids
Phospholipids
a fatty acid, a phosphate group & a glycerol molecules
components of plasma (cell) membranes
Proteins most abundant and important organic molecules
Contain basic elements CHON
Basic building blocks are 20 amino acids
List seven major protein functions:
Coordination + Control
hormones ex. adrenaline
Defense
antibodies
identify bacteria/ viruses then alert white blood cells
Support
structural proteins
keratin(hair/nails) + collagen(nail)
Movement
contractile proteins
actin(act thin) + myosin(me me me)
Transport
transport(carrier) proteins
hemoglobin
Buffering
regulation of pH
Metabolic Regulation
enzymes ex. sucrase, lactase
Lipids provide 2x more energy than protein
Anything w/ nitrogen is probably protein
Protein structure= long chains of amino acids
Amino Acid Structure-
central carbon atom
hydrogen atom
amino group(-NH2)
carboxylic acid group(-COOH)
variable side chain or “R” group
Enzymes=catalysts
Proteins lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction, are not changed or used up in the reaction, and are specific- will only work on limited types of substrates
Denaturation= change in shape due to heat or pH
Nucleic acids store + process information at the molecular level
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) determines inherited characteristics, directs protein synthesis, controls enzyme production, and controls metabolism
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis
Structure of Nucleotides:
a sugar(deoxyribose or ribose)
phosphate group
nitrogenous base (A,G, T, C, or U)
DNA= double stranded, and the bases form hydrogen bonds to hold the DNA together
RNA usually a single strand
DNA forms a twisting double helix
Purines pair with pyrimidines
DNA:
adenine(A) and thymine(T)
cytosine(C) and guanine(G)
RNA:
uracil(U) replaces thymine(T)
Types of RNA:
messenger RNA (mRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Nucleotides can store energy
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) di-=2
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) tri-=3
Adding a phosphate group to ADP with a high-energy bond to form a high-energy compound
Red blood cells don’t have a nucleusc
Atoms:
Matter is made up of atoms
Atoms join together to from chemicals
Proton= positive charge, 1 mass unit
Neutron= neutral, 1 mass unit
Electron= negative charge, low mass
Atomic Structure
Atomic number= number of protons
Mass number= number of protons plus neutrons
Nucleus contains protons and neutrons
Electron cloud contains protons
neutrons= atomic mass - atomic
Elements- determined by atomic number of atoms
Atomic number= number of protons
Isotopes- a version of an element based on its mass number
Mass number= number of protons plus the number of neutrons
Only neutrons are different because number of protons determines the element
Atomic Weights= Average of the mass numbers of the isotopes
Electrons and Energy Levels
Electrons determine the reactivity of an atom
The electron cloud contains shells, or energy levels that hold a maximum number of electrons
Lower shells first
Outermost shell is the valence shell, and it determines bonding
The number of electrons per shell corresponds to the number of atoms in that row of the periodic table
Bonds:
Ionic Bonds
One atom loses one or more electrons and becomes a cation, with a positive charge
Another atom gains those same electron and becomes an anion, with a negative charge
Attraction between the opposite charges then draws the two ions together
Covalent Bonds- the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms
One electron is donated by each atom to make the pair of electrons
Sharing one pair of electrons is a single covalent bond
sharing two pairs= double covalent bond
sharing three pairs= triple covalent bond
Nonpolar covalent bonds- equal sharing of electrons because of equal pull for the electrons
Polar covalent bonds- unequal sharing of electrons because one atom has a disproportionately strong pull on the electrons forming polar molecules- like water
Hydrogen Bonds are bonds between adjacent molecules, not atoms
Involve slightly positive and slightly negative portions of polar molecules being attracted to one another
Hydrogen bonds between H2O molecules cause surface tension
Importance of Water:
water- two-thirds of total body weight
solubility- water’s ability to dissolve a solute in a solvent to make a solution
reactivity- most body chemistry occurs in water
high heat capacity- water’s ability to absorb and retain heat
lubrication- to moisten and reduce friction
pH- concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) in a solution
Neutral pH is a balance of H+ and OH-
pure water=7.0
pH of human blood ranges from 7.35 to 7.45
Acidic- pH lower than 7.0
basic (or alkaline)- pH higher than 7.0
pH Scale- more than H+ ions mean lower pH, less H+ ions mean higher pH
Organic Molecules:
Contain H, C, and usually O
Covalently bonded
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ina 1:2:1 ratio
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbon atoms
Glucose, fructose, galactose= C6H12O6
glucose= sugar in blood
fructose= fruits
galactose= milk
Disaccharides
Two simple sugars condensed by dehydration synthesis
Sucrose, maltose, lactose= C12H22O11
Sucrose- table sugar (sugar cane)
glucose + fructose= sucrose
maltose- malt sugar (from grains)
glucose + glucose= maltose
lactose- milk
Polysaccharides
Glucose molecules condensed by dehydration synthesis
Glycogen, starch, cellulose
glycogen- stored animal starch in liver + muscles
starch- food for embryonic seed or to store glucose
cellulose- plant cell walls + provides fiber
Lipids:
Mainly hydrophobic molecules such as fats, oils, and waxes
Made mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms
Fatty Acids
Long chains of a carbon and hydrogen with a carboxylic acid group (COOH) at one one end
Fatty acids may be
Saturated with hydrogen (no double covalent bonds)
Unsaturated (one or more double bonds):
monounsaturated= one double bond
polyunsaturated= two or more double bond
Prostaglandins- local hormones, short- chain fatty acids
Triglycerides- three fatty-acid tails attached to a glycerol molecule
Functions: energy source, insulation, protection
Steroids
Four rings of carbon and hydrogen with an assortment of functional groups
Types of steroids:
Cholesterol is a component of plasma (cell) membrane
Estrogens and testosterone are sex hormones
Corticosteroids and calcitriol function in metabolic regulation
Bile salts are derived from steroids
Phospholipids
a fatty acid, a phosphate group & a glycerol molecules
components of plasma (cell) membranes
Proteins most abundant and important organic molecules
Contain basic elements CHON
Basic building blocks are 20 amino acids
List seven major protein functions:
Coordination + Control
hormones ex. adrenaline
Defense
antibodies
identify bacteria/ viruses then alert white blood cells
Support
structural proteins
keratin(hair/nails) + collagen(nail)
Movement
contractile proteins
actin(act thin) + myosin(me me me)
Transport
transport(carrier) proteins
hemoglobin
Buffering
regulation of pH
Metabolic Regulation
enzymes ex. sucrase, lactase
Lipids provide 2x more energy than protein
Anything w/ nitrogen is probably protein
Protein structure= long chains of amino acids
Amino Acid Structure-
central carbon atom
hydrogen atom
amino group(-NH2)
carboxylic acid group(-COOH)
variable side chain or “R” group
Enzymes=catalysts
Proteins lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction, are not changed or used up in the reaction, and are specific- will only work on limited types of substrates
Denaturation= change in shape due to heat or pH
Nucleic acids store + process information at the molecular level
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) determines inherited characteristics, directs protein synthesis, controls enzyme production, and controls metabolism
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis
Structure of Nucleotides:
a sugar(deoxyribose or ribose)
phosphate group
nitrogenous base (A,G, T, C, or U)
DNA= double stranded, and the bases form hydrogen bonds to hold the DNA together
RNA usually a single strand
DNA forms a twisting double helix
Purines pair with pyrimidines
DNA:
adenine(A) and thymine(T)
cytosine(C) and guanine(G)
RNA:
uracil(U) replaces thymine(T)
Types of RNA:
messenger RNA (mRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Nucleotides can store energy
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) di-=2
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) tri-=3
Adding a phosphate group to ADP with a high-energy bond to form a high-energy compound
Red blood cells don’t have a nucleusc