Chapter 2 Psychological Research

Key Terms

Archival research- method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships.
Attrition- reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time .
cause and effect relationship- Changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design.
clinical or case study- observational research study focusing on one or a few people.
confirmation bias- tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs.
confounding variable- unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of Interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in those variables.
control group- serves as a case for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study-by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups.
correlation- relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other one does .
Correlation coefficient- number from -1 to + 1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r.
Cross-sectional research- Compares multiple segments of a population at a single time
debriefing- when an experiment involves deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion.
deception- purposely misleading experiment participant in order to maintain the Integrity of the experiment.
deductive reasoning- results are predicted based on a general premise.
dependent variable- variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable has.
double blind study- experiment in which both the researchers in the participants are blind to group assignments.
empirical- grounded in subjective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.
experimental group- ripped design to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance.
experimenter bias- researcher expectations skew the results of the study .
Fact- objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through Empirical research.
falsifiable- able to be disproven by experimental results.
generalization- inferring that the results of a sample apply to the larger population.
hypothesis-( plural: hypotheses) tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
illusory correlation- seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists.
independent variable- variable that is influence or control by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group.
inductive reasoning- conclusions are drawn from observations.
informed consent- process of informing a research participants about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then a pending the person's consent to participate.
institutional Animal Care and use committee ( IACUC)- Committee of Administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that review proposals for research involving non-human animals.
institutional review board (IRB)- Committee of Administrators, see, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants.
inter-rater reliability- Measure of agreement among servers on how they record and classify a particular event.
longitudinal research- studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time.
Naturalistic observation- observation of behavior and its natural setting.
Negative correlation- two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation.
Observer Bias- when observations may be skewed to align with Observer expectations
operational definition- description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables.
Opinion- personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate.
participants- subjects of psychological research.
Peer-reviewed Journal article- article Red by several other scientists usually anonymously with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication.
Placebo effect- people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation.
Population- overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in.
Positive correlation- two variables change in the same direction, both be coming either larger or smaller.
Random assignment- method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group.
random sample- subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
reliability- consistency and reproducibility of a given result.
replicate - repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability.
sample - subset of individuals selected from the larger population.
Single-blind study - experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group.
Statistical analysis - determines How likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance.
Survey - list of questions to be answered by research participants given as a paper and pencil questionnaire, administered electronically, or conducted verbally allowing researchers to collect data from a larger number of people.
Theory - well developed set of ideas that proposed an explanation for observed phenomena.
validity - accuracy of a given result in measuring what is designed to measure.

2.1 Why is Research Important?

a. Research is a mandatory process in validating claims. Without research, we would only have intuition and groundless assumptions. Through research we are able to prove certain ideas through study and testing. Because Psychology is a science, research is required to not only further investigate something but provide verification and support of the findings.

i. Psychological research utilizes tools within the scientific method to process observations and claims made. The two processes work interchangeably.

ii. In the process of inductive reasoning, new ideas are generated from empirical observations. Through this, general ideas are derived from observations made.

iii. Deductive reasoning uses general ideas to create predictions to claims by testing real-world observations.

iv. Through these processes, certain claims derive from the ideas generated.

1. A theory is a less refined set of ideas, more of a proposed explanation.

2. A hypothesis is a more concrete claim, typically an if-then statement. This concrete quality in a hypothesis is what separates it from general ideas gathering.

2.2 Approaches to Research

Because the field of Psychology includes such a variety of research a variety of techniques are utilized to approach these areas of study.

1. Clinical studies or case studies focus on one individual. The studied individual is typically in a extreme or unique psychological circumstance that differentiates them for the general public. Because these cases are so distinct, it is difficult to rely on previous findings in that such cases require exclusive attention.

2. Naturalistic behavior is generally hidden under scrutiny or observation. To study the most accurate and genuine behaviors, naturalistic observation proven most effective. Through naturalistic observations, any feeling of performance or anxiety of the studied individuals is eliminated. Establishment of clear criteria to observe should help eliminate observer bias.

3. Surveys can be used to gather a large amount of data from a sample from a population.

4. Some more expansive subjects of research require a stretched period of time to measure changes or effects.

5. Through longitudinal research, gradual differences can be studied through a more prolonged time of study.

6. E. Cross-sectional research creates cohorts of subjects over the same expanse of time, allowing sectioned observations rather than continual.

2.3 Analyzing Findings

Varied techniques are not limited only to data collection. Analysis of collected findings can be approached differently as well.

Findings can be drawn from correlations found in the collected data. When two variables move in the same direction, a positive correlation is apparent. When two variables move in different directions, a negative correlation is found. It is important to keep in mind that any correlations found do not necessarily prove causation.
A hypothesis regarding cause and effect can be tested through experimentation.

An experiment should include an experimental group receiving experimental manipulation and a control group that is not manipulated.

To eliminate any ambiguity or misinterpretation, operational definitions or clear descriptions should be established.
Because experimenter biases can be apparent, techniques such as single blind and double-blind can help eliminate any biases in researchers.
When findings are collected they are sorted between the independent variable, the manipulated findings, and the dependent variable, the measured effect of the independent variable.
Although experiments may require specific demographics, a random sample is used to ensure that the sample pool was selected randomly without any biased dispositions.
A statistical analysis is used to study any meaningful differences between the groups within the study.

2.4 Ethics

Because psychological research is behavior based, a set of ethics and conduct is in order to ensure the wellbeing of participants. These apply to all human and animal research subjects.

A. Research Involving Human Components: Any experiment involving the participation of human subjects is strictly governed.

a. Guidelines ensure that experiment does not cause harm.

i. Any risks must be disclosed and participants must acknowledge them in an informed consent document.

ii. Informed consent also ensures that participation is voluntary, data is confidential, and participants can leave at any time.

b. Institutional review boards (IRB) required for any research institution that receives federal support for research involving human participants.

c. Tuskegee study targeted Black men and tested them for syphilis (nearly 400 tested positive). Since the purpose was to study untreated syphilis, the administrators withheld both treatment and information about their disease, which led them to infect others and suffer effects of the disease.

i. Started in 1932 by US Public Health Service, lasted 40 years.

ii. By 1947, penicillin was a treatment, but was not provided to those who had tested positive.

iii. When the study was revealed in 1972 it led to significant changes in US law, such as the guidelines discussed earlier.