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AP Human Geography Ultimate Guide
Unit 1: Thinking Geographically
Key Concepts:
Space is the geometric surface of the Earth
Objects on the Earth’s spatial surface are defined by their location and are separated by some degree of distance from other things
Activity space is referred to as the area wherein activity occurs on a daily basis
Place is an area of bounded space of some human importance
A place-name, or more technically a toponym is assigned to a location when human importance is recognized
Regions are a type of place, and there are other categories of places, such as urban places, places of work, resource locations, and transportation nodes
Attributes of a place change over time
The concept of sequent occupancy is considered over a long term: in other words, the succession of groups and cultural influences throughout a place’s history
There are several different historical layers that contribute to a place-specific culture, society, local politics, and economy
Scale is the relationship of an object or place to the Earth as a whole
Map scale describes the ratio of distance on a map to distance in the real world in absolute terms
Relative scale, or scale of analysis refers to the level of aggregation, or in other words, the level at which you group things together for examination.
Scales can range from local to city and state, from regional to national to continental, or to the international and global scales
Regions are categorized into three groups: formal, functional, and vernacular
Formal regions are areas of bounded space that possess some homogeneous characteristic or uniformity
A homogeneous characteristic can be a common language
Regional boundaries differ based on the type of region.
Culture regions tend to have fuzzy borders
Political regions boundaries are finite and well-defined
Environmental region boundaries are transitional and measurable
The environmental transition zone between two bioregions is known as an ecotone
Functional regions or nodal regions, are areas that have a central place, or node, that is a focus or point of origin that expresses some practical purpose
Market areas are a type of functional region
Since outlet malls are often placed far apart, there will also be a larger area of influence for the mall that will have shoppers traveling from longer distances
An intervening opportunity is an attraction at a shorter distance that takes precedence over an attraction that is farther away.
Vernacular regions are based upon the perception or collective mental map of the region’s residents
The overall concept can vary within the region due to personal or group variations
Location is considered in both absolute and relative terms
Absolute location defines a point or place on the map using coordinates such as latitude and longitude.
The Prime Meridian is 0° longitude and runs through Great Britain because the means to accurately calculate longitude at sea was developed by the British Royal Navy.
The equator is 0° latitude. The North and South Poles are 90° latitude.
Time Zones are divided up into 15-degree-wide longitudinal zones around the world with some exceptions. This is because 360° divided by 24 hours a day equals 15°.
Relative location, by contrast, refers to the location of a place compared to a known place or geographic feature.
Site and Situation are locational concepts that work together
Site refers to the physical characteristics of a place
Situation refers to the place’s interrelatedness with other places
Distance is considered in absolute and relative terms
Linear absolute distance is the distance between two places as measured in linear units such as miles or kilometers
The concept of distance decay and Tobler’s Law is used to explain relative distance.
Distance decay (gravity) means that the farther away different places are from a place of origin, the less likely interaction will be with the original place
Tobler’s law states that all places are interrelated, but closer places are more related than farther ones.
Friction of distance is the length of distance that becomes a factor that inhibits the interaction between two points.
Space-Time Compression is decreased time and relative distance between places
Technology like modes of transportation or the Internet can reduce the relative distance between places
Human-Environmental Transportation is the effect that humans have on their environment, and vice versa
Spatial Interactions
Central Places are any node of human activity and are most often the centers of economic exchange.
Central place theory was developed in the 1930s by the German geographer Walter Christaller
city location and the level of urban economic exchange could be analyzed using central places within hexagonal market areas, which overlapped at different scales
Core and Periphery relationships are displayed by different regional, cultural, economic, political, and environmental phenomena and human activities
CBD (central business district) is the core of the urban landscape, a country’s capital is the core of its political landscape.
the core does not have to be exactly in the center of the peripheral region
Pattern
A cluster is when things are grouped together on the Earth’s surface
Agglomeration is when clustering occurs purposefully around a central point or a economic growth pole
A random pattern is when there is no rhyme or reason to the distribution of a spatial phenomenon
Objects that are normally ordered but appear dispersed are scattered
If it is a straight line, the pattern is linear
If it is a wavy line, the pattern is sinous
Land survey patterns have an effect on the property lines and political boundaries of states and provinces.
Until the 1830s, land surveys used natural landscape features to divide land on a system of metes and bounds
A rectilinear township and range survey system based upon lines of latitude and longitude
Long-lot patterns have a narrow frontage along a road or waterway with a very long lot shape behind.
Density
Arithmetic density is most often calculated as the number of things per square unit of distance.
Physiologic density measures the number of people per square unit of arable land, meaning land that either is actively farmed or has the potential to be
Agricultural density refers only to the number of farmers per square unit of arable land
Diffusion Patterns
There are a number of different ways and patterns in which human phenomena diffuse spatially, or spread across the Earth’s surface.
A hearth is the point of origin or place of innovation
Expansion diffusion pattern originates in a central place and then expands outward in all directions to other locations.
Hierarchical diffusion originates in a first-order location and then moves down to second-order locations and from each of these to subordinate locations at increasingly local scales
Contagious diffusion begins at a point of origin and then moves outward to nearby locations, especially those on adjoining transportation lines
A stimulus diffusion pattern is a general or underlying principle that diffuses and then stimulates the creation of new products or ideas
Relocation diffusion pattern begins at a point of origin and then crosses a significant physical barrier, such as an ocean, a mountain range, or a desert, and then relocates on the other side
Geographic Tools
Scientific maps are the results of spatial analysis—the mathematical analysis of one or more quantitative geographic patterns
Types of Maps
Topographic maps show the contour lines of elevation, as well as the urban and vegetation surface with road, building, river, and other natural landscape features
Thematic maps express a particular subject and does not show land forms for other features.
Choropleth maps is a thematic map that expresses the geographic variability of a particular theme using color variations.
Isoline maps calculate data values between points across a variable surface.
Dot density maps use dots to express the volume and density of a particular geographic feature.
Flow-line maps use lines of varying thickness to show the direction and volume of a particular geographic movement pattern.
Cartograms use simplified geometries to represent real-world places.
Mental map: the cognitive image of landscape in the human mind
Map scale is the “absolute” form of the scale concept.
Linear map scale expresses distance on the map surface.
The ratio scale of the map shows the mathematical relationship between the distance on the map compared to the real distance on the Earth’s surface.
A large-scale map is one with a ratio that is a comparatively large real number
A small-scale map is one with a ratio that is a comparatively very small real number
Map Scale | 1:50,000 | 1:1,000,000 |
|---|---|---|
Ratio | 1/50,000 | 1/1,000,000 |
Scale Type | Large Scale | Small Scale |
Area Covered | Small Area | Large Area |
Level of Detail | High Detail | Low Detail |
Purpose | City | State or Province |
Projections
Each given projection creates different levels of accuracy in terms of size and shape distortion for different parts of the Earth.
accuracy is based upon two concepts: area preservation and shape preservation
Equal-area projections attempt to maintain the relative spatial science and the areas on the map.
distortion of the actual shape of polygons
Conformal projections attempt to maintain the shape of polygons on the map.
distortion of the relative area from one part of the map to the other
Robinson projection and the Goode’s homolosine projection balance area and form, sacrificing a bit of both to create a more visually practical representation of the Earth’s surface.
MODELS
A model is an abstract generalization of real-world geographies that share a common pattern
Spatial models attempt to show the commonalities in pattern among similar landscapes
Urban models try to show how different cities have similar spatial relationships and economic or social structures**.**
Demographic transition models are non-spatial models that use population data to construct a general model of the dynamic growth in national scale populations without reference to space.
A gravity model is a mathematical model that is used in a number of different types of spatial analysis
used to calculate transportation flow between two points, determine the area of influence of a city’s businesses, and estimate the flow of migrants to a particular place
Location1 Population x Location2
Why Are Models Used?
Models are a way to picture geographical patterns that are not normally visible to the human eye and answer theoretical questions
The concentric zone model can be modified to create a graph showing the cost-to-distance relationship in urban real estate prices.
Geographic Technology
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) became practical with the onset of the desktop computer in the 1970s.
incorporate one or more data layers in a computer program capable of spatial analysis and mapping.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) utilizes a worldwide network of satellites, which emit a measurable radio signal
Aerial photography and satellite-based remote sensing make up a large amount of the geographic and GIS data used today
Aerial photographs are images of the Earth from an aircraft, printed on film, but digital camera usage is on the increase
Remote-sensing satellites use a computerized scanner to record data from the Earth’s surface
Unit 2: Population and Migration Patterns & Processes
Key Concepts:
Basic Population Statistics
Population growth involves two main concepts: rate of natural increase (RNI) and the demographic equation.
The demographic equation uses uses birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration statistics to show population growth
Birth rate, also known as natality, is the crude birth rate (CBR) and an annual statistic
High birth rates: rural agricultural Third-World countries
Low birth rates: urbanized industrial and service-based economies
Ex: total number of infants born living is counted for one calendar year and then calculated
CBR: Number of Live Births/Total Population x 1,000
Death rate, also known as the mortality rate, is the crude death rate (CDR) and an annual statistic calculated in the same way as the birth rate.
High death rates: a country that is experiencing war, disease, or famine, such as poor Third-World countries experiencing poverty, poor nutrition, epidemic disease, and a lack of medical care.
Green Revolution: (increased food and nutrition) and access to sanitation, education, and health care
CDR: Number of Deaths/Total Population x 1,000
The rate of natural increase (RNI), or the natural increase rate (NIR) is the annual percentage of population growth of that country for that one-year period.
RNI: Birth Rate - Death Rate/10%
Negative RNI means the population has shrunk
Happens in in highly urbanized First-World countries and where the traditional roles of women in the country of mother and housewife have deteriorated significantly
Reduced fecundity: when the majority of women are heavily engaged in business, they are far less likely to have children
Double-income no-kid (DINK) households and single-parent–single-child homes are far more common; higher rates of divorce
Natural increase does not account for immigration or emigration
Ex: a country with a high rate of natural increase can have an unexpectedly low long-term population prediction if there is a large amount of emigration
Doubling Time: how long it would take for a country to double in size
Formula: 70Rate of Natural Increase
To estimate the RNI for each year in the future by examining a country’s position: (Pop. × RNI1) + (Pop. × RNI2) + (Pop. × RNI3) + (Pop. × RNIn) = Future Population
Net Migration Rate (NMR): the number of immigrants minus the number of emigrants for every thousand members of the population; can be negative
Formula: Number of Immigrants - Number of Emigrants/Population /1,000
Population Growth Percentage Rate = (Birth Rate - Death Rate) + Net Migration Rate/10%
Total fertility rate (TFR) is the estimated average number of children born to each female of birthing age (15 to 45)
Formula: Number of Children Born/Women Aged 15 to 45
Replacement rate is a TFR of 2.1
A large population must have 2.1 children per female of birthing age.
Dependency ratio provides the number of people too young or too old to work compared to the number of people in the work force
MODELS
The demographic transition model (DTM) is a theory of how population changes over time and provides insights into issues of migration, fertility, economic development, industrialization, urbanization, labor, politics, and the role of women.
Newly industrialized countries (NICs) can also be placed on the model, but you have to change the dates as to when they reach the significant turning points in their history
The epidemiological transition model (ETM) specifically accounts for development due to the increasing population growth rates caused by medical advances
The phase of development is directly followed by a stabilization of population growth as the procreation rates decline
Can predict how its population will change over time and speculate as to how much it can grow in size
Ex: we can estimate a population projection that the planet’s population has reached only about two-thirds of its potential
The S-Curve of Population
Ex: an animal population that receives a vast amount of food or removes predators from their habitat will result rapid population growth followed by a plateau or decline due to a population reaching or exceeding the area’s carrying capacity
Stage-By-Stage
Stage One:
Historically characterized by pre-agricultural societies engaged in subsistence farming and transhumance
Birth rates and death rates fluctuate due to climate, warfare, disease, and ecological factors, but overall, both rates are high
Child mortality and infant mortality were very high
Result: little population growth until the later part of stage one when death rates begin to decline; RNI is generally low or negative
Present-day Third-World countries engaged in long periods of warfare have late stage one characteristics
Stage Two:
Typically agriculturally based economies
Birth rates remain high and life expectancy rises while death rates decline over time; RNI increases
Infant and child mortality is still an issue due to a lack of medical care and
Poor nutrition for expectant mothers and infants
The vast majority of populations in stage two countries live in rural regions as a result of agriculture’s economic prominence
Stage Two 1/2:
NIC countries are characterized by economies that focus on manufacturing as the primary form of economic production and employment
Birth and death rates decline
Rapid population growth; high RNIs; rapidly increasing rate of urbanization
Migrants responding to the pull factor of employment opportunity rapidly fill the cities
Stage Three:
Historically where most “industrialized” or manufacturing-based countries were found in the transition
Shifted their economies to a more service-based focus
Birth and death rates decline due to urbanization
The diffusion of fertility control due to access to health care and the availability of contraceptives as well as reducing the diffusion of disease due to medical advances
Stage Four and Five
Birth and death rates converge to result in limited population growth and population decline
Service industries like finance, insurance, real estate, health care, and communications that drive the economy; manufacturing is dying
Ex: in the United States, services are 80 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) and manufacturing is only 20 percent
Both the final stages of the DTM and ETM occur when birth rates bottom out into the lower teens
Zero population growth (ZPG) (RNI of 0.0 percent): birth rates reach the same level as death rates
Elderly population means fewer people investing their money:
Causing less money to circulate through the society, which results in stagnation
Lower tax base to support the rest of the nation
Shortage of labor supply
Countries that are near or below zero population growth levels offer incentives to citizens to have more children.
With so few children being born, fewer people enter the workforce over time
Become dependent upon foreign guest workers
Many former Communist countries of Eastern Europe have stage four demographic characteristics
Economic restructuring has brought economic, political, and social hardship to many communities
Malthusian Theory states that the global population would one day expand to the point where it could not produce enough food to feed everyone.
Malthus saw was that food production did grow over time but in a slow arithmetic manner, while human population grows exponentially
As new food products and methods were adopted, another large volume of food would be added to global production and supply
This meant that food production has continued to stay ahead of population growth.
The science of genetics did not make any impact on global food production until the 1950s
Neo-Malthusians warn that a Malthusian catastrophe could still occur.
Sustainability. If too many of the world’s current growing areas are damaged, can food production keep up with the increased demand?
Increasing Per Capita Demand. Can the planet provide enough food when all 10 billion of us eat like the First World does today?
Natural Resource Depletion**.** Can a world with 10 billion people have enough material to house everyone, enough fuel to heat all the houses, and enough food to feed everyone?
Population Pyramids
Graphical way to visualize the population structure of a country or place as well as the gender and age distribution of the population
General Principles:
Males are always on the left of the pyramid and females are on the right
Each bar is an age cohort, generally made up of five-year sets
The origin (0-value) of each bar graph is the center and increases in value as you move left or right outward from the center
A gap in data for both males and females is likely a sign of past war inside that country, epidemic disease, or famine.
The general shape of the pyramid is reveals the character of the country, state, province, or city that is being diagrammed.
increased mortality from disease and old age causes significant declines in the elder population, causing the top to shrink
Population density is calculated in two main ways.
Arithmetic density is the number of people per square unit of land
Physiologic density is the number of people per square unit of farmland
Important in understanding the geography of countries where the amount of arable land is limited
The population center of a country is found by averaging the spatial weight of population across the country.
Overpopulation is a major concern both in resource-poor regions and across the globe.
Nonrenewable energy sources will be depleted if conservation efforts and population control methods are not mandated by governments
Alleviating concerns over decreasing amounts of personal space
Migration
Migrants are generally those who voluntarily move from location to location.
Many countries experience internal migrations that significantly change the countries’ population distributions.
Interregional, or internal, migrants: those who move from one region of the country to another
Transnational migration: occurs when migrants move from one country to another.
Forced migration: people may be taken or coerced from their homes for forced labor through human trafficking or enslavement
Undocumented immigrants: people who come seeking refuge or employment opportunities but do not have government authorization
Amnesty programs: allow undocumented immigrants the opportunity to apply for official status or citizenship without facing arrest or deportation
Step migration: occurs when people move up in a hierarchy of locations, with each move to a more advantageous or economically prosperous place
Chain migration: occurs when a pioneering individual or group settles in a new place, establishing a new migrant foothold.
Life-course changes: when people move because of major changes in the course of their lives.
Push and Pull Factors
Push factors are specific things about the rural agricultural landscape and livelihood that force people off the farm
(ex: armed conflict, environmental pollution, increased land costs)
Pull factors are specific things about cities that draw people to the urban landscape
(ex: job opportunities, medical care, education, service access, entertainment)
Unit 3: Cultural Patterns & Processes
Key Concepts:
Culture: the shared experience, traits, and activities of a group of people who have a common heritage
Components of Culture:
Art
Architecture
Language
Music
Film and Television
Food
Clothing
Social Interaction
Religion
Folklore
Land Use
Each component of culture is expressed in a multitude of ways that signify and symbolize cultural influences
Cultural synthesis (syncretism): the blending together of two or more cultural influences
EX: Country music is often thought of as a product of American culture and is strongly tied to folk music traditions. However, the mixture of musical sounds, vocabulary, rhythms, and instruments from the Scots-Irish, the German, African immigrants, and enslaved people in the American South and Appalachia came together to form a new style of music.
Combined, the many components come together to identify and define a single culture group, or nation
Art is important as an identifier of groups and a source of local pride
Architecture
Architectural forms that are the product of cultural influence are found within the built environment of the human landscape
Modern and contemporary architecture: when new buildings are constructed using innovative designs
Modern means architecture developed during the 20th century that expresses geometric, ordered forms
(EX: the rectangular steel and glass skyscrapers built in the 1970s-1980s)
Contemporary architecture of the present is more organic, with the use of curvature
Incorporates green energy technologies, recycled materials, or nontraditional materials (EX: metal sheeting on the exterior)
Postmodern: a category within contemporary that means that the design abandons the use of blocky rectilinear shapes in favor of wavy, crystalline, or bending shapes in the form of the home or building
Traditional architecture can express one of two patterns in building type:
New commercial buildings incorporate the efficiency and simplicity of modern architecture into a standard building design with squared walls and utilize traditional materials like stone, brick, steel, and glass
Housing based on folk house designs from different regions of the country
Housing Types:
New England: small one-story pitched-roof Cape Cod style or the irregular roof Saltbox with one long pitched roof in front and a sort of low-angle roof in back
Federalist or Georgian: refers to the housing styles of the late 1700s and early 1800s in Anglo-America.
Often two- or three-story urban townhomes connected to one another
Windows and rooflines featured classical Greek and Roman designs and stone carvings.
Symmetrical homes with central doorways and equal numbers of windows on each side of the house
The I-house: a loose form of Federalist and Georgian influence on the average family home in the United States and Canada
Simple rectangular I-houses have a central door with one window on each side of the home’s front and three symmetrical windows on the second floor
Later I-houses moved the door to the side and added onto the back or side of the house
Fireplaces on each end of the house and an even- pitched roof
Religious Buildings and Places:
Christian: traditional houses of worship tend to have a central steeple or two high bell towers in the front of the building
The steeple is typical of smaller churches, and bell towers are found in larger churches and cathedrals.
Symbolically, older churches, cathedrals, and basilicas feature a cross-shaped floor plan.
Hindu: temples and shrines tend to have a rectangular-shaped main body and feature one or more short towers of carved stone
The towers often feature stepped sides and display carvings of the heads and faces of deities
Buddhist: temples and shrines vary depending on which Buddhist tradition is followed in the region
In Nepal and Tibet, a temple can be a stupa, with a dome or tower featuring a pair of eyes
In East Asia, the tower-style pagoda has several levels, each of which features winged roofs extending outward
Temples and shrines in China and Japan feature one- or two-story buildings with large, curved, winged roof
Temples are often guarded by large lion statues
Temples in Southeast Asia tend to have several towers with thin pointed spires that point outward at an angle
Islamic: mosques can take a variety of forms, though many have central domes
A mosque is one or more minarets, narrow towers that are pointed on top
Almost all mosques are built on an angle that places the main prayer area toward Mecca
Judaic: there is not a common architectural design style to synagogues.
The most holy place in Judaism is the Wailing Wall, which have old foundation walls that feature large rectangular stone blocks where Jews pray and place written prayers in the cracks between the blocks
Language
the United States federal government has not designated an official language
Monolingual: knowing one language only
other states accept that they have a large multilingual immigrant population and have made provisions to provide services
Canada is bilingual because there are two official languages: English and French.
Depending upon where you are in a larger linguistic region, the dialect of a common language is different
(EX: the English spoken by English people and Australian people sounds similar, there is a distinct “strain” of English spoken in Australia)
A variety of different word sounds and vocabulary
Received pronunciation: King’s English or “posh” English
Cockney English: the language of the working-class areas of the East London docklands and surrounding neighborhoods, which sounds distinctly not posh
Cockney rhyming slang: an odd but humorous use of code phrases to describe everyday situations
Pidgin languages are simplified forms of the language that use key vocabulary words and limited grammar
French Creole is spoken, which incorporates continental French with African dialectal sounds and vocabulary
French itself has long been a language used to bridge the linguistic gap between people of different national heritage
The term lingua franca was coined to describe its utility as a bridge language
English is accepted as the global lingua franca as different forms of popular culture media, the Internet, and the business world are dominated by the English language
Major Language Families:
There are a small number of major language families represented by the early or prehistoric language roots
Can be broken into language groups or even language subfamilies
The Indo-European concept is derived from linguistic analysis and genetic evidence of prehistoric migrations from the Indian subcontinent into Europe
Largest members of language families:
Indo-European (2.9 billion people)
Sino-Tibetan (1.3 billion people)
Niger-Congo (435 million people)
Afro-Asiatic (375 million people)
Austronesian (346 million people, from Southeastern
Asia, Oceania, and Hawaii)
Dravidian (230 million people, from on and around the
Indian subcontinent)
Altaic (165 million people, from Eastern Europe through
Central and Eastern Asia)
Japanese (123 million people)
Tai-Kadai (81 million people)
Two competing theories regarding the origins of European language:
Anatolian theory: a group of migrants from the Indian subcontinent, and their language, were for some time concentrated in the peninsula that makes up most of present-day Turkey. Then, a large migration crossed the Hellespont into continental Europe and spread outward into a relatively unpopulated region.
Kurgan theory: the same group of migrants from the Indian subcontinent instead made their way into Central Asia, and then migrated across the Eurasian stepped into Central and Western Europe, taking their language with them.
Genetic research shows that almost all Europeans are derived genetically from populations that inhabited the Indian subcontinent in prehistoric times
Music
Music is a form of nonmaterial culture that has geographic roots and regional variation
Folk music: music that is original to a specific culture
Often incorporate instruments unique to that region or have orchestrations that are specific to that culture
Folk song lyrics often incorporate cultural stories and religious tradition, which can be described as folklore
Popular culture generates a global flow of pop music that often has the effect of drowning out local folk music traditions from radio and other media
The most popular folk music type in the region is bluegrass, which originated in Kentucky
Heavily influenced contemporary country music, and recently, rock and roll
Recordings sold today as World Music are actually products of folk musicians from other culture groups
(EX: the band, Gypsy Kings, are from France, but their families had left Spain decades earlier due to persecution by the Franco-led fascist government of Romani in Europe)
Film and Television
Different forms of film and television are important signs of a cultural imprint on the land
Media forms are major conduits for cultural globalization
Food
A material form of culture that varies regionally and is rooted in a number of geographic ways
Continental cuisine: the formal food traditions that emerged from mainland Europe in the 1800s
Embodied in haute cuisine, where traditionally a main meat course is served with a flour-, cream-, or wine-based sauce and side dishes of vegetables and potatoes
Nouvelle cuisine: the contemporary form of the continental styles mainly from France, Spain, and Italy
Fusion cuisine: when more than one global tradition is incorporated in dishes
All of these forms are based on original forms of folk food dishes
(EX: Sushi is a simple but artistic form of folk food from Japan)
Clothing
Different clothing styles are other signs of a cultural imprint on the landscape
The way people dress is an important sign of their ethnicity
Social Interaction
Culturally constructed: traditions devised by a specific culture group
Physical greetings are a basic example of culturally different social interaction:
A handshake is a common physical greeting in the West
The bow still holds as the primary formal greeting in Japan
Formal, non-touching cheek kissing is a greeting in many countries
personal space also varies from country to country
(EX: it is considered rude not to sit in empty seat in Peru)
Religion
Specific religions are drawn from a number of larger global groups and can be characterized by their expanse
Universalizing religions: accept followers from all ethnicities worldwide
Ethnic religions: confined to members of a specific culture group
All organized religions have one or more books of scripture, said to be written of divine origin
Formal doctrines: govern religious practice, worship, and ethical behavior in society.
Compromising religions: have the ability to reform or integrate other beliefs into their doctrinal practices
Fundamentalists: have little interest in compromising their beliefs or doctrines and strictly adhere to scriptural dictates
Syncretic religions: synthesize the core beliefs from two or more other religions
(EX: Sikhs incorporate principles from both Islam and Hinduism)
Three Major Traditions of Belief Systems:
Animist Tradition: Various ethnic, tribal, and other forms of nature worship
These groups have common themes, worship practices, and morality tales, which define a right and ethical way to live
Share the common belief that items in nature can have spiritual being, including landforms, animals, and trees
Hindu-Buddhist Tradition: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
The oldest universalizing religions began with Hinduism 5,000 years ago
Polytheistic: believing in more than one spiritual god
Many levels of existence, the highest being nirvana, where someone achieves total consciousness or enlightenment
One’s soul is reincarnated over and over into different forms
Karma: the balance between good and evil deeds in life, determines the outcome of reincarnation
Abrahamic Tradition: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Similar scriptural descriptions of the Earth’s genesis and the story of Abraham as a morality tale of respect for the will of God or Allah
Monotheistic belief system with a singular supreme being
Sub-deities such as saints, angels, and archangels
Significance is placed upon prophecy that predicts the coming or return of a messianic figure that defeats the forces of a satanic evil for souls of followers
Caste System in India
Hindu scriptures describe a cosmology (a belief in the structure of the universe) in which there are several levels of existence, from the lowest animal forms to human forms and then higher animal forms
Sacred animals include elephants, horses, and cows, which are seen as aspects of Mother Goddess Earth and symbols of selflessness
All souls undergo reincarnation multiple times, learning new things each time.
Whether a person is elevated in each new life depends upon his or her karma, which is the balance between the good and bad deeds that he or she has committed in his or her previous life.
Once a person is born into a caste, he or she remains there for the rest of his or her life, no matter the changes to his or her fortune.
India’s government has initiated a number of efforts to eliminate the caste structure in Indian society; however, is still recognizable in rural areas
The Five Castes (from highest to lowest):
Brahmans
Priestly caste
Responsible for temples and leading religious worship
Can be selected as high government officials
May eschew all material possessions to live as monks, meditating hermits, or as ascetics who sit on sidewalks and perform prayers for those who provide their food donations
2. Kshatriyas
Aristocratic and warrior caste
Hereditary princes and kings still bow to the Brahmans
Many were landowners, government leaders, and wealthy businesspeople
3. Vaishyas
Merchant and professional caste
Many were doctors, lawyers, accountants, and government bureaucrats
4. Shudras
Caste of farmers, laborers, and artisans
Many were potters, jewelers, and glassworkers
No leisure time and near-total illiteracy
Forbidden from studying the Vedas
5. Dalits
“Untouchables,” a name derived from their low position in the system and considered unholy by higher castes
Segregated from other Hindu housing areas and social networks
Dalit sub-castes were divided among trades and duties in the community such as leather work (cattleare sacred, and only the lowest-caste humans could handle their flesh) and cleaning of train stations and sewers
Islamic States: Theocracy, Sharia, and Secular Governance
Theocracies: religious leaders hold the senior positions of governance
(EX: Iran has a supreme religious council that serves as the head of state and can overrule the elected parliament and president)
Not all Middle-Eastern states are republics or monarchies that abide by Sharia, or Islamic law, based on the Koran and Hadith
Other states in the region are
Secular: not directly governed in a religious manner and, instead, often utilize French or British legal tradition and government structure
Theocracy: Iran, formerly Afghanistan under the Taliban
Sharia States: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Yemen Secular States: Jordan, Turkey
Five Pillars of Islam
The Koran emphasizes five pillars that guide followers with a moral system
Five Daily Prayers
The call to prayer is heard on loudspeakers in cities throughout the Muslim world at designated hours
All work stops and prayer mats are unrolled
Prayer is done facing Mecca
Islamic astronomers and geographers have worked for centuries to determine the azimuth, the angle of direction, from Mecca to other parts of the Earth
Islamic Creed
The creed is a statement of monotheism
Prior to Muhammad’s religious conversion of the Arabian peninsula, many of the peoples in the region believed in polytheistic Animist or tribal religions
Believe in a number of prophets shared with the Judeo-Christian traditions, such as Moses, Isaac, Ishmael, and Jesus, but Muhammad is the supreme prophet
Alms to the Poor
Duty of all Muslims to care for and donate to the poor and sick within their communities
Large charitable foundations in the Islamic world help alleviate poverty, extend health care, and educate children
Have come under increased scrutiny by the U.S. government following 9/11, due to accusations that charities were being used to funnel money to terrorist groups
Observance of Ramadan
Ramadan is a period of spiritual cleansing and repentance for past sins
There is fasting during daylight hours, with plain evening meals of sparing quantity
Set on a lunar calendar and can fall during a wide range of months in our Gregorian calendar
The Hajj
Must make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca during his lifetime
“Haji” is an honorific name for those who make the journey
The most popular time for the Hajj is during Ramadan
Folklore
Folklore: collected stories, spoken-word histories and writings that are specific to a culture and tell the societal histories and morality tales that define a culture’s ethical foundations
(EX: Aesop’s fables are an example of folklore from the classical Greeks. Each fable had a moral to the story, a lesson to be learned regarding proper behavior.)
The intersection of a culture’s history and its folklore can often lead to distortions of reality in the lives of historical figures
(EX: In many parts of the Americas, a folklore has been built around the life and travels of Christopher Columbus. The myths and facts are intertwined and the folklore varies from country to country.)
Land Use
How property is utilized, shared, or divided can say something about culture through its imprint on the landscape
Farming can culturally specific and is heavily influenced by technology
Range from swidden, or a “slash and burn” style of agriculture seen in forest regions, to the highly technological large-scale farming seen in the First World
Residential Patterns:
The distribution of living space is also an important indicator of culture, especially in rural and tribal areas
Cultural traditions impose rules on living space that depend on:
Singular clan relations
Extended family units with more than one clan
Whole tribal communities with multiple clans living in one shared residential area
Land Ownership:
Landholdings became subdivided via partial land sales or by nationwide land reform efforts
Land reform often divided properties into smaller polygons
Long-lot patterns: a narrow frontage along a road or waterway with a very long lot shape behind
Nation and Ethnicity
Nation: a population represented by a singular culture or a culture group
Not all nations have a representative state
Ethnicity: a complex mix of genetic heritage and political allegiance
Ethnic groups often claim a single identifiable lineage or heritage, which all members tend to identify with as a common social bond
Can be modified in the process of migration
Can be evidence of acculturation by immigrants to their new home country
State: a population represented by a single government
Cultural identity: how people are identified and how they identify themselves
Race
Race: the physical characteristics of a common genetic heritage.
Developed by physical anthropologists in the 1800s
Categorized racial groups based on a number of variables including skin color, bone structure, and the shape of the hair shafts
Crudely as the basis for racism within society and have led to oppression, suffering, and war throughout the world.
Three distinct racial groups emerged:
Mongoloid or Asiatic: with a tan or yellowish skin tone, small body structure, and straight hair shaft
Caucasoid or Indo-European: with light to dark skin tone, medium body type, and wavy hair shaft
Negroid or African: with a dark skin tone, medium body shape, and a curly hair shaft
Four populations of physical anthropological groups were identified within the Pacific Islands:
Melanesians: found in New Guinea, New Caledonia, and Fiji, named because of their dark skin coloration, have comparatively thin bodies and angular facial features, with a curly hair shaft
Polynesians: living in Tonga, Samoa, New Zealand, Tahiti, and Hawaii, have a lighter brown skin color, heavyset body shape, and curly hair shafts
Micronesians: coming from the small island atolls of the Marshalls and Caroline Islands, have a light brown skin color, medium body shape, and curly hair shafts
Aboriginals: in Australia, have light brown skin, a medium body type, and wavy hair shafts
Mixed Race Cultures
Identities can be based on a single race or be defined by multiple mixed races
(EX: Mestizos are people who have cultural and genetic heritage from European and Native American backgrounds)
Indigenous population: the people who originally settled in an area
Racism
Environmental determinism: the former scientific ideology that states that a culture’s traits are defined by the physical geography of its native hearth or culture region
It was being used to reinforce the racist ideologies of the 1800s and early 1900s
Possibilism: the revised concept proposed by Sauer and other like-minded geographers that stated cultures were to a partial degree shaped by their environment and the material resources available to them
Culture groups have the ability to adjust and modify the environment
Lebensraum: the living space for each distinct nation was based upon the optimal physical geography of the culture group
The concepts of Nazism proposed by Hitler were in part based on Ratzel’s concept
Neo-Nazism: based on violent racism against non-whites and immigrants or violet expression of xenophobia
Ethnocentrism: the belief in the superiority of one’s nation or ethnic group, and in the inferiority of other nations or ethnic groups
Typically grows fiercest in the earliest and most dominant settlement group, whose characteristics strongly influence the initial social and cultural geography of an area
Cultural relativism: the idea that an individual’s beliefs and activities can only be understood in the context of that person’s culture
Internal vs External Identity
Internal identity: used by individuals to express their cultural heritage, ethnicity, or place of origin to people who share their heritage or place of origin
External identity: used by individuals to express their cultural heritage, ethnicity, or place of origin to people who do not share a common cultural or geographic background
Use to compensate for the lack of cultural knowledge from one group to another
Culture regions: an area of bounded space with a homogeneous characteristic that can be one or more components of culture
Fuzzy borders: cultural regions tend to have this because it’s hard to tell where one cultural region ends and another begins
Cultural regions overlap in an irregular manner
(EX: where Dixie ends and the American Northeast or Midwest begins)
Border states: where one part of the state is decidedly Southern and another part seems more Northeastern
Cultural Hearths
Culture hearth: the idea that every culture has a localized area where it originated or has its main population center
Contemporary culture hearths exist in today’s world
(EX: the Mormon culture region of the American West shares the homogeneous characteristic that is the Latter-Day Saints (LDS) religion and is a region with a distinct core and a wider periphery; is botha formal and functional region)
Ancient culture hearths: developed ideas and technologies that still exist today
(EX: the domestication of staple food crops)
Cultural Change
Sequent occupance: for a single place or region, different dominant cultures replace each other over time
(EX: European architecture found in former colonial cities of Africa like Lagos, Nigeria)
The ethnic neighborhood shows how these groups make their way into the layers of sequent occupance at a much smaller scale
Acculturation: the process of adapting to a new culture while still keeping some of one’s original culture
Both the original and the incoming culture group swapping cultural traits
Assimilation: a complete change in the identity of a minority culture group as it becomes part of the majority culture group
(EX: the U.S. government forced the Native Americans to move to reservations and adopt the dress, manners, language, and ways of the dominant American culture)
Cultural Survival and Globalization
Cultural survival: used to describe the efforts to research, understand, and promote the protection of indigenous cultures
Indigenous culture: the original culture of that same region
The loss of indigenous culture has become a significant concern among citizens and a major policy issue among governments
Cultures are in danger of extinction if something is not done to help protect and promote the preservation of cultural heritage
Depopulation of Native Americans
William Denevan established that the pre-Columbian population of Native Americans in North and South America combined was approximately 54 million people
The total native population had declined to around 5 million people by 1635
Diseases of European origin were the main reason behind the decline,
Cultural globalization: a number of influences such as literature, music, motion pictures, the Internet, and satellite and cable television, mainly from English-language sources, combined to diminish and potentially eliminate the media and culture of other linguistic groups
People who lose their connection to their heritage are also losing part of their personal connection to nature
By protecting national cultures from the negative effects of globalization, a nation can promote its own cultural economy and products from creative arts and media–draw for tourism
Proselytic religions that actively seek converts also threaten many unique cultures around the world
National governments around the world have instituted laws and regulations that lessen the impact of foreign influence on their home cultures
Cases of Cultural Diffusion
Culture is transmitted through a number of different methods:
Trade: interconnectedness increases along popular trade routes
Colonialism: though the Mormon church that began in Utah, it spread itself around the world via mandatory missions conducted by its young members
Conflict: or war, often sees soldiers and armies invading or even occupying foreign cultures
Migration: immigrants carry their own culture to their new country and blend them with preexisting bits of culture
EX: Yugoslavia
Ethnic cleansing: where people of one ethnic group are eliminated by another, often under threat of violence or death
Several political and military leaders have been charged with crimes against humanity for their war crimes
(EX: The former Yugoslavia was created as a state during the post–World War I Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
After the death of leader Joseph Tito, people and politicians began to revitalize their centuries-long ethnic and religious arguments.
In 1989, localized fighting broke out in northern Yugoslavia between Croats and Serbians)
Genocide: a large-scale systematic killing of people of one ethnic group
(EX: the Holocaust of Jews at the hands of the Nazis in World War II when six million were killed)
Unit 4: Political Patterns & Processes
Key Concepts:
UNITS OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
Country: an identifiable land area
Nation: a population with a single culture
Same as a culture group
State: a population under a single government
Implies there is a sovereign territory
Nation-state: a single culture under a single government
Sometimes, one culture group is represented by a singular government
None are truly made up of only one cultural group
Also applied to multinational states where the state has come to represent a singular and contemporary culture, as opposed to the ancient cultures from which the population originates
Sovereignty: means that a state is fully independent from outside control, holds territory, and that it has international recognition from other states or the United Nations.
Multi-national states: made up of a number of different nations represented by the multitude of culture groups who have migrated and intermixed around the world
Sometimes called multiethnic states, are most common in the Americas, where there are no nation-states
Also applied to multinational states where the state has come to represent a singular and contemporary culture, as opposed to the ancient cultures from which the population originates
Nationalism: can derive from an existing culture group that desires political representation or independence, or from a political state that bonds and unifies culture groups
Used by politicians as motivation to support the state and oppose foreign or other political influences
Stateless nations: where a culture group is not included or allowed a share in the state political process
(EX: full independence of Kurdistan is limited geopolitically due to Turkish government resistance to their sovereignty, based upon Kurdish Marxist rebels, the PKK, who have been fighting in Turkey for several decades)
ORGANIZATIONS OF STATES
Federal states & confederations: provides military protection, administers foreign diplomacy, and regulates trade as well as a number of internal administrative (executive branch), legislative, and judicial services across the country
Common approach to government
Have their own governments, legislatures, regulations, and services with divisions of responsibilities
(EX: federal government regulates interstate trade, whereas states can make rules about the sale of goods within each state)
Unitary system: a single centralized government
Ultimate authority lies with the central government
(EX: People’s Republic of China)
Microstates: sovereign states that despite their very small size still hold the same position as much larger states
Island states, ports, or city-states, or they sit landlocked with no access to the sea
(EX: Andorra is landlocked)
Autonomous regions: certain parts of certain nations have been granted freedom from central authority, usually for historical, geographical, religious, or linguistic reasons
(EX: the Basque region of northeastern Spain has its own language, Euskara, which is thousands of years old and is unrelated to any of the Romance languages that surround it)
Semi-autonomous regions: have the same freedom as autonomous regions, but to a lesser degree
Multi-State Organizations
Supranationalism: the concept of two or more sovereign states aligned together for a common purpose
Supranational organizations: organizations formed for the purposes of trade alliances, military cooperation, and diplomacy
EX: European Union (28 members)
The EU serves 5 main purposes:
Free-trade union: No taxes or tariffs are charged on goods and services that cross the internal borders of the EU.
Open-border policy: Between EU member states, there are no longer any border-control stations for immigration or customs inspections.
Monetary union: In 2000, the first EU members began converting to the Euro and phasing out their old forms of money. This eliminated the costs of currency exchange fees.
Judicial union: The European Court of Justice in Luxembourg provides a legal venue for cases between litigants in separate EU member states. A European Court of Human Rights has been established to preserve civil rights regardless of their member states’ local laws.
Legislative and regulatory bodies: The 751-seat EU Parliament was established to propose and approve laws within the union.
EU governance has been successful in creating a singular economy through free trade, open borders, free movement of labor, free exchange of currency, and a level playing field for business and labor in terms of laws and regulations.
Issues:
The cost of EU governance has significantly increased the cost of many items in Europe
European courts have threatened the sovereignty of national and local courts and laws
Open borders have made it difficult to control crime and terrorism
Fortress Europe: describes the concept of sealing EU borders
A European Union Constitution was proposed for ratification in 2004, but was poorly understood by the citizens and members of parliament who had to vote on the constitution. It was ultimately rejected.
SPATIAL CONCEPTS OF POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
Territoriality: the expression of political control over space
Implies that the government controls land and the people who live there
Citizenship: the legal identity of a person based on the state where he or she was born or where he or she was naturalized as an immigrant
When citizens go outside their state’s political borders, they retain their citizen status and thus become an extension of their state
Political Borders
Political boundaries: as expressions of political control, must be definable and clear
Finite lines: the borders between political states and political sub-unit areas (counties, parishes, parliamentary districts, and city limits)
Physical geography, such as rivers or other water bodies, defines boundaries, and sometimes borderlines are measured surveys based on treaties or other agreements between states.
Non-physical boundaries often reflect cultural divisions
Can be the result of aristocratic land holdings from Feudalistic eras
Can be the front lines at the cessation of armed conflict between states
Expatriate populations: citizens living outside of their borders
Countries have to provide consular services in large foreign cities
It’s the government’s diplomats and military duty to get citizens who trapped in war zones or disasters in foreign countries them out
Enclave and Exclave
Enclave: a minority culture group concentrated inside a country that is dominated by a different, larger culture group
(EX: enclaves were formally established within Bosnia to separate warring Serb, Croat, and Muslim communities)
Exclave: a fragmented piece of sovereign territory separated by land from the main part of the state’s territory
Neighboring states occasionally attempt to claim exclaves in the name of cultural nationalism
(EX: Alaska is an exclave whose controlling state is the United States and is separated by Canada.)
Water Borders at Sea
United Nations Conference on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS): proposal of standard oceanic boundaries for all UN member states that was fully ratified in 1994
Makes provisions for a UN arbitration board to settle disputes regarding boundaries at sea
Difficulty occurs when uninhabited small islets, exposed reefs, and sandbars above water are claimed by more than one country
(EX: The Spratly Islands and the Paracel Islands, are claimed by China, Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei. They are areas of potential future armed conflict if arbitration fails.)
UNCLOS border system is in two parts:
Territorial sea: Sovereign territory that includes the area of sea from shore out to the 12-nautical-mile limit. Within 12 nautical miles, all the laws of a country apply.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Exclusive economic rights from shore out to the 200-nautical-mile limit. Within 200 nautical miles of its shores, a state controls all aspects of natural resource exploration and extraction. This includes fisheries, oil and gas production, salvage operations, and permits for such activity.
Territorial seas and EEZs create circular boundaries, especially around islands, which extends a country’s EEZ out another 200 nautical miles
High seas are technically outside of the 12-mile limit
Past that line, cruise ships can open their casinos and ship captains gain the authority to marry couples or arrest thieves onboard their ships
Admiralty law: a part of international law that dictates legal procedures on the high seas
The 1986 International Whaling Commission: a moratorium on commercial whale hunts that banned whaling after centuries of hunting dangerously depleted populations
Boundary Origins
Antecedent: Boundary lines that exist from prehistoric times
(EX: French-Spanish border along the Pyrenees Relic: Scotland-England border after The Act of Union in 1652)
Relic: Former state boundaries that still have political or cultural meaning
Subsequent: Lines resulting from conflict or cultural changes, such as war and migration
(EX: German-Polish border after 1945; Kaliningrad to the USSR in 1946)
Superimposed: Lines laid down for political reasons over existing cultural boundaries
(EX: Sub-Saharan Africa after the Berlin Conference of 1884; Yugoslavia and Iraq after the 1919 Treaty of Versailles)
Boundary Process
When borders are claimed, negotiated, or captured
Delimitation process: when borders are put on the map
Demarcation process: when markers are placed on the ground to show where borders lie
Boundary Types
Physical border: natural boundaries such as rivers, lakes, oceans, mountains, or deserts
Cultural border: estimated boundaries between nations, ethnic groups, or tribes
Geometric border: boundaries surveyed mostly along lines of latitude and longitude
Border Disputes
Definitional dispute: when border treaties are interpreted two different ways by states
(EX: Russian-Japanese Kuril Islands under Soviet control in 1945)
Locational dispute: when the border moves, like a river changing course or a lake drying up
(EX: India-Bangladesh territory along the Ganges-Brahmaputra River Delta)
Operational dispute: when borders are agreed on, but passage across the border is a problem
(EX: New passport requirements for entry into the United States after September 11, 2001)
Allocational dispute: when a resource lies on two sides of a border
(EX: Mexico-United States river allocations for irrigation and drinking water on the Colorado River and Rio Grande)
Frontier: open and undefined territory
The only remaining large land frontier is Antarctica, that has been set aside for scientific research and prohibits any military action and commercial mineral or energy extraction
Tyranny of the Map
The Conference of Berlin (1884) was a diplomatic meeting between the European colonial powers to set the internal political boundaries in Africa.
The main problem with the European-set boundaries in Africa is that they do not match the cultural boundaries.
This superimposed boundary situation is what Africans refer to as the Tyranny of the Map.
Territorial Morphology
State morphology: the shape of a country that also impacts its society and external relations with other countries
Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
Compact | Shape without irregularity | Nigeria, Colorado |
Fragmented | Broken into pieces; archipelagos | Philippines, Newfoundland |
Elongated | Appears stretched-out, long | Chile, Tennessee |
Prorupt | Has a panhandle or peninsula | Italy, Michigan |
Perforated | Has a hole(s) (country, large lake) | South Africa, Utah |
Landlocked | Has no sea or ocean borders | Switzerland, Wyoming |
Territorial Change
State territory can change shape through decolonization by reducing the area and number of territorial and colonial holdings
Annexation: the addition of territory as a result of a land purchase or when a territorial claim is extended through incorporation
(EX: The United States originally purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867 for $7,000,000 in gold and it became a full state in 1948.)
Capitals
States have a capital city as a seat of government where political power is centered
Politicians need a place to have organized exchanges of power
Federal states can have several scales of capitals
(EX: Washington, D.C. is the capital of the United States at a national and federal level.)
Some countries have more than one national capital to share power across different regions of the country
Countries occasionally change the location of their capital due to a shift in political power or congestion in the old capital
Planned capital cities: cities located in places where cities did not previously exist
(EX: Sydney was the old capital of Australia. It’s new capital is Canberra.)
Electoral Politics and Internal Boundaries
Suffrage in terms of age, race, and gender has varied historically from state to state.
In most countries, women gained voting rights in the 1900s.
In South Africa, racial segregation existed in almost all aspects of life and residents were denied the voting rights of non-white citizens.
All democracies have some form of parliamentary system in which at least one lawmaking body or house has popular representation
Each country has its own system regarding the number of seats and the size of voting districts
EX: In the U.S., presidential elections are decided through voting by the Electoral College.
Every ten years following the census, the United States reapportions the 435 seats of the House of Representatives.
Gerrymandering: the irregularly shaped districts that are highly elongated and prorupt
In 1990 and 2000, a number of gerrymanders were attempted that tried to stack votes guaranteeing congressional support for one particular party.
POLITICAL ECONOMY
Feudalism
Aristocracy: a peerage of lords, earls, marquis, barons, dukes, princes, kings, and queens
controlled vast majority of land and wealth in feudal political economies
The majority of the population were peasants, commoners, serfs, or slaves who worked the land controlled by aristocrats
Debt peonage: peasants paid rent and had their harvests taxed for the right to live on and work the land, keeping them in a cycle of debt
Absolute monarchy: where the supreme aristocrat, a king, prince, or duke, was both
Head of state and head of government, and therefore did not share power with anyone
Revolutions and wars from the late 1700s to the 1900s forced many feudal states to accept some form of democracy
(EX: the French Revolution of 1789 inspired many monarchs to accept power-sharing with commoners to avoid losing control)
Constitutional monarchy: where the supreme aristocrat remains head of state, but the leader of the elected parliament is the head of government, with integrated legislative and executive powers
The monarch retains the power to: dismiss parliament; appoints judges, ambassadors, and other officials; is commander and chief of the military; and retains significant land holdings and estates
Mostly diminished to a symbolic role
Prime minister (premier): one who appoints senior members of parliament to be ministers or secretaries of executive-branch departments
EX: The current form of constitutional monarchy in Great Britain has been in place since the Magna Carta was signed in 1215.
Feudal rents to local aristocrats are still paid in a number of rural areas of the United Kingdom, (symbolic and small fees)
House of Lords: the upper house of parliament, which also serves as the supreme court
Since the late 1600s, the power of the House of Commons, the lower house of parliament, has steadily increased
The PM is the political leader of the party with the most MPs
Other senior MPs from this ruling party serve as ministers of the executive branch of government
Commonwealth of Nations: independent former parts of the British Empire that retain the British monarch as their head of state
Have their own parliaments and prime ministers as head of government
Have a royally appointed governor-general as the crown representative in the country
Considered independent sovereign states
Have parliamentary governments, which integrate executive, legislative, and judicial powers
Provides special trade, education services, government funding, and preferred immigration status between member governments and citizens
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, and Kenya are commonwealth members that do not claim the British monarch as head of state.
Free-market democracies: countries with elected-representative parliamentary systems commonwealth countries, and other constitutional monarchies or republics
Relies upon balancing the relationship between the elected-representative government, its citizens, and business interests
There is a variable system of regulation and taxation by the state
Government regulatory influence of the private lives of its citizens and practices of businesses is usually limited to areas concerning public safety and economic protections
Republics: governments free of aristocracy or monarchical control and are fully under the control of the “common” people, as opposed to hereditary monarchy
Some are centrally governed from a single capital
Others are confederations that apportion some government power of legislation and administration to their component states or provinces
Separation of powers: where the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government are held by separate groups of people that keep each other in check
Reduces the potential for corruption of the whole government
The other branches can act to correct problems or replace leadership if necessary
Written constitutions of these governments need to be flexible enough to allow governments to deal with political and other crises when they occur
Wealthy businesspeople and corporations have replaced the aristocracy in terms of the control of money, land, and resources
Their personal and corporate political influence overshadows that of many thousands of private citizens
Created uneven power relations in free-market democracies
A type of separation that is sometimes employed to blunt the power of the executive branch is to have separate presidents and prime ministers
Executive separation can be when the president is head of government and the prime minister is head of state, or vice versa
Marxist-Socialism
Communism: Karl Marx’s political-economic theories attempted to right the wrongs of feudalism and inequalities of capitalism in free-market democracies
Marxism: the goal to create a class-free society where there were no inequalities in terms of wealth or power
The state would own all land and industry, the government would direct economic productivity, and everyone would earn the same amount of money regardless of labor position
Planned economy: an economy that does not rely on supply and demand like capitalism
The central government would calculate the economic needs of the state, its industries, and people
Set quotas for each individual operational unit of agricultural or manufacturing production to meet these needs
The productivity of the economy would result in a collective wealth that would be shared equally across the population
Communism in practice failed to reproduce Marx’s utopia
Example: The Soviet Union
The first Communist country, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR or Soviet Union), was established in 1917 with the fall of the czar’s absolute monarchy in Russia
A number of unintended consequences to the Russian revolution, including a protracted and bloody civil war, human rights violations, murders on the part of the Communist government, and forced resettlement of over a million citizens result from Soviet Communism
Five-Year Plans: comprehensive long-term economic plans that dictated all production in minute detail that were developed by the USSR
The Devolution of the Soviet System:
Three classes of Soviet citizens emerged early in the Soviet Union who were mostly workers that Marx envisioned to be his proletariat
Communist Party members made up about 6 percent of the USSR population and enjoyed many perks
A military officer class emerged that had a similarly high quality of life in comparison to the regular working class
Secret police and laws that made public protest punishable by hard labor in prison camps
Creativity and economic productivity stagnated because of a lack of incentive in the system that would motivate people to have better lives
Resulted in a lack of surplus, leaving many stores with few items on the shelves and lines of people waiting to receive rations for food and clothing
Positives:
Socialism meant that everyone had a right to health care, and hospitals, clinics, and rural travelling doctor programs were established.
Infrastructure programs for public schools, free universities, drinking water, care for the elderly, and public transit were established to improve the efficiency and quality of life in communist society.
Have since been incorporated in Western free-market democracies
GEOPOLITICS
Geopolitics: the global-scale relationships between sovereign states
Centripetal forces: factors that hold together the social and political fabric of the state
Overabundance of centripetal force may lead to nationalistic movements and xenophobia
Centrifugal forces: factors that tear apart the social and political fabric of the state
The survival of the state is at risk when the balance shifts to far and indicates the likelihood of armed conflict—in the form of an internal civil war, or the possibility of conflict spilling over into external cross-border war
Number of forces at work that both reinforce and destabilize the state
Examples of Centripetal Force: | Examples of Centrifugal Force: |
|---|---|
Political beliefs of nationalismA strong and well-liked national leaderAn effective and productive economyEffective government social welfare programs | Ethnic, racial, or religious differences or conflicts Political corruption Failing economic conditions Natural disasters or a wartime defeat |
EX: Josip Tito became a centripetal force representing the two largest ethnic groups in the country. A strong nationalist belief in Communism among Yugoslavians helped Tito build an economically strong and socially harmonious multiethnic society.
The lack of an effective multiethnic leader to replace him created a political power vacuum that opened the way for different nationalist leaders representing different ethnicities to attempt to seize power for themselves and their constituents.
Ripped apart the Yugoslav social and political fabric and, in combination with the fall of Communism in Europe, doomed the country to ethnic violence and dissolution
Balkanization: a situation in which the political landscape goes from a larger state to several smaller states
Europe has geopolitically gone from being dominated by large empire states to being dominated by several small nation-states
Early cases of balkanization after World War I were due to a realignment of German borders and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into six sovereign states
Irredentism has two definitions:
When a minority ethnic group desires to break away from a multiethnic state and form its own nation-state
Or when break away and align itself with a culturally similar state.
EX: Chechnya was granted limited local self-governance by the Russian Federation. After the fall of Communism, Chechens began to declare independence from Russia. A regional conflict ensued between Chencens and the Russian government due to fear of losing oil resources and other autonomous republics pushing for secession.
Some nations or culture groups were torn apart as a result of war, but they reunified
Neocolonialism: a contemporary form of colonialism based not on political control, but on economic pressure
(EX: While the United States possesses very few political territories, it has long waged economic control over nearly every nation in the Western Hemisphere, by granting favored-nation trade status to those neighbors who play by its rules.)
MODELS
Heartland-Rimland model: designed to define the global geopolitical landscape and determine areas of potential future conflict
British geographer, Mackinder identified agricultural land as the primary commodity that states were interested in.
Eastern European steppe: a very productive area of grain cultivation that was mostly controlled by the Russian Empire; Mackinder identified this as Heartland
States bordering Rimland, such as the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Romania might invade this area
Primary commodity of conflict: the thing that countries are willing to fight over
American geographer Saul Cohen proposed the Shatterbelt theory in 1950
He modified Mackinder’s Heartland into the Pivot Area, Rimland into the Inner Crescent and the rest of the world became the Outer Crescent
Land-based concept was that Cold War conflicts would likely occur within the Inner Crescent
Buffer states: lands that would protect hostile countries by creating a surrounding buffer of sympathetic countries
U.S. diplomat George Kennan proposed the strategic policy of containment to the American government in 1947
The proposal stated that the United States and its allies would attempt to build a containment wall around the core communist states
The U.S. and allied states had to contain these Soviet-supported satellite states to prevent Communism from spreading like a domino effect
Communism was limited to a large degree to the Pivot Area and a number of buffer states
The containment effort had a devastating effect on the economy of the Soviet Union
The United States arming Afghan Mujahideen rebels with arms was a centrifugal force that reverberated throughout the USSR, leading to its government failing
Terrorism: planned violent attacks on people and places to provoke fear and cause a change in government policy
State terrorism: when governments use violence and intimidation to control their own people
Unit 5: Agricultural and Rural Land Use Patterns and Processes
Key Concepts:
Primary economy: timber, fisheries, and mineral and energy resources
Agricultural activity can be classified by how concentrated the labor and area of activity is for a particular type of farming:
Intensive agriculture: requires lots of labor input, or is focused on a small plot of land, or both
Extensive agriculture: requires limited labor input, or is spread across large areas of land, or both
Hunting and gathering societies are the earliest forms of agriculture
Transhumance: where groups move seasonally not only to avoid harsh climates, climates, but also to follow animal herds and walk to areas where native plants were in fruit
Animal hunting eventually led to the live capture and eventual domestication of cattle, horses, pigs, donkeys, sheep, goats, reindeer, llamas, alpacas, and water buffaloes
Pastoralism: agriculture based on the seasonal movement of animals from winter to summer pastures and back again
Nomadic herding: a practice where whole communities would drive their herds from one seasonal grazing area to another following an annual cycle that was repeated over centuries
Ranching: grazing livestock in a single large area,
People learned to domesticate and grow more abundant plants, which led to more permanent and organized farm settlements
Other plant cultivars were added to these early farms so that there were a variety of crops
Multi-cropping if one crop failed or was damaged by pests, another crop would provide a backup food supply
More secure than single-crop monoculture
Monoculture became common in the era of early political civilization and empires, when farms produced a staple crop in large order to feed whole societies and armies
Mixed farming, or general farming: where multiple crops and animals exist on a single farm to provide diverse nutritional intake and non-food items, such as bone for tools and leather for different materials such as saddles, rope, and coats
Subsistence agriculture: intensive mixed farming that provides for all of the food and material needs of a household
All the daily needs of the household could be provided for on the farm, allowing people to settle permanently and subsist without having to migrate seasonally
Extensive subsistence agriculture: occurs when there are low amounts of labor inputs per unit of land
More likely to occur in less-populated regions or in less-habitable areas where pastoralism is common
Today, most subsistence agriculture is usually very intensive and done on small plots of land
Physiologic density: the number of people per unit of arable land
Very high in third world countries compared to first world countries
Many rural communities much more susceptible to famine from drought or armed conflicts
Food preservation: a necessity for survival for thousands of years via drying, pickling, cooking, and storage jars that has led to many cultural variations in food consumption
Many specialized crops were grown for both immediate consumption and preservation as a result
(EX: cabbages spiced with red pepper and soaked in vinegar were buried in clay storage jars to make kimchi in Korea eight thousand years ago)
Cash-cropping: a form of extensive agriculture in which harvested crops are exchanged for currency, goods, or credit
The credit is then used to buy equipment or seed for the next planting season and in part to buy food, clothing, and other necessities for the farm family t
The commercial crops are transported, sold at other markets, and finally preserved or processed into other goods for sale
Communism and Agriculture
Farming under communism was also done on a non-subsistence basis, with much of the food grown being produced collectively in farm communities and distributed across the country
In the late 1800s, armed with knowledge of The Communist Manifesto, peasants staged uprisings in Eastern Europe that called for a rejection of not only aristocracy and landlords, but also the whole capitalist system.
The Russian Revolution in 1917 had a number of political and military causes combined with a crisis of poverty in many rural Russian farming communities.
The solution was a collectivization of farms and elimination of privately owned land
The communes that resulted were large farms where several families were organized as labor units
Were assigned quotas by the government that detailed exactly how much each farm should produce each year
There were no incentives to produce over the quota or produce other crops or products outside the mandated crop, which usually encouraged monoculture
The land was owned collectively by the whole state
Over time, farming communes began to produce crop yields similar to those in capitalist economies
Result: a system that had no surplus food and not much variety available to consumers
Human Ecology
Human ecology: human interactions with nature
Human-environment interactions is more commonly used to describe forestry techniques, fisheries, and environmental regulation in addition to farming practices
Our ecological relationship to the land is a food web in which each type of crop and animal is dependent on a number of human inputs, soil and climate conditions, and other crops
Food chain: the order of predators in the animal world that is used to describe several integrated human and mechanical inputs, from developing seeds to planting, fertilizing, harvesting, processing, packaging, and transporting food to market and finally to your dinner plate
Farming Practices
Crop rotation: occurs when one crop is planted on a plot of land and then switched to another plot in subsequent years
The rotation cycle will vary back and forth due to one or more factors
Multi-cropping: the planting of more than one crop on the same plot of land
An intensive strategy in which either crops are planted together simultaneously or one crop is planted right after another in the same row
(EX: after summer vegetables are harvested, winter vegetables like kale and spinach can be planted and harvested before the cold)
Double cropping: planting two crops one after another on a single plot in a year
Triple cropping: planting three crops in the same year
These practices often rely on fertilizers and irrigation
Each crop has its own growing season, but the general rule is to plant in spring, grow in summer, and harvest in fall
(EX: Spring wheat is planted in the spring and harvested in late summer. Winter wheat is planted in the fall, lies dormant in the winter, and then grows in the spring to be harvested by the start of summer.)
Irrigation: opens up more land to cultivation than would normally be possible in arid climates and is responsible for close to three-quarters of world freshwater use and up to 90 percent of freshwater use in the most poverty-stricken countries of the world
Governments heavily subsidize irrigation agriculture with the result that the crops produced are often worth less than the water
Aquifers: underground water tables that gives water to irrigation farms
Depleting at a rapid rate in large-scale grain-producing countries
Farming practices can be criticized for their dependence on external inputs such as fuel and agricultural chemicals and the effects of farming on soil erosion and local water usage
Conservation: the practice of preserving and carefully managing the environment and its natural resources
Conservation agriculture: an increasingly important way of providing a sustainable farming system without sacrificing crop production
Methods:
No-tillage: involves not plowing the soil so that soil erosion is greatly reduced and soil fertility is increased by retaining natural vegetation
Crop rotation is used to increase soil fertility and discourage pests
Inter-planting: planting fast-growing crops alongside slow-growing crops, allowing a farmer to harvest the fast-growing crop before the slow-growing crop shades it out
Sustainable yield: the amount of crops or animals that can be raised without endangering local resources such as soil, irrigation, or groundwater, or what can be raised without too many expensive inputs that would make farming unprofitable
By reducing inputs and using ecologically sound methods, farmers can reduce the risk that their farming practices may lead to long-term environmental or economic problems
Non-Food Crops
A number of crops are raised for industrial use, textiles (clothing), or animal feed
Alternative energy crops have become important as oil prices have increased over time
(EX: corn has been used to make ethanol, an alcohol that can supplement gasoline and make it burn cleaner)
Shifting Cultivation
In some third world countries, farming occurs in environmentally sensitive areas such as tropical rainforest or dry grasslands.
Slash and burn agriculture: occurred in tropical rainforest regions with farmers shifting from one plot of land to another every few years as soil nutrients become depleted
Abandoned land would fallow and natural vegetation would return, increasing the nutrient biomass of the area
Rainforest soils are very poor due to the water and nutrients in the environment being sapped up by the natural vegetation
People who move to the forest who often discover that they can farm for only a few seasons before soil nutrients are sapped or eroded by heavy tropical rains
Puts dangerous pressure on a very sensitive and valuable natural resource
Extensive pastoralism: the shifting of animal herds between grazing pastures, has remained popular in several arid parts of the world, especially Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia, where dry grassland is the common landcover
Too many people and too many animals are placing population pressure on too little land
Overgrazing has led to significant amounts of dry grassland being denuded, eroded, and as a result, decertified
Desertification: any human process that turns a vegetated environment into a desert-like landscape
Soil salination: the evaporation of water that can trap mineral salts on the surface soil layer. High daytime temperatures cause water vapor to be drawn out of irrigated farmland. As evaporation continues over several growing seasons, the amount of mineral salt can build to toxic levels and poison crops
Agricultural Practices
Cultural practices affect how food is grown
Religion plays a role in determining agricultural trade and practices
EX: dietary restrictions can limit the trade of beef (to India) or pork (to Islamic societies)
Family history plays other types of roles in agriculture
EX: first-generation farmers may view planting differently than second- or third-generation farmers
Culture determines different levels of societal support for farmers, many of whose fortunes often rise and fall based on the weather
EX: Countries with larger governmental safety nets tend to support farmers in a more socialistic manner
Available resources also affect agricultural practice
EX: Irrigation becomes necessary in water-scarce regions
Agricultural Revolutions
New farming methods reduced the amount of labor needed to produce goods and increased the amount of goods harvested per unit of land
The general historical pattern is that revolutions began in one place and diffused around the world over time
First Agricultural Revolution:
Vegetative planting: where the shoots, stems, and roots of existing wild plants were collected and grown together
Seed agriculture: where the fertilized seed grains and fruits of plants were collected and replanted together
The domestication of plants took place by early farmers rejecting the poorly growing crops, and taking cuttings or seeds from the more productive, better-tasting plants to grow future generations
Horticulture: where plant varieties that thrived in different soil or climate conditions were cultivated
Regions of agriculture emerged where certain crops were grown under optimal conditions for an area’s specific cultural tastes
Hearths of domestication: the areas where most of this early agricultural activity originated
Wild breeds that were productive were purposely interbred or hybridized to be reproduced through animal husbandry
Growing areas of crops and livestock expanded as domesticated varieties were traded and diffused across the landscape
The Columbian exchange: domesticated New World crops that made their way to the rest of the world through relocation diffusion
(EX: maize, from the new world, and wheat, from the old world, were exchanged)
Second Agricultural Revolution:
Technological changes in agriculture were enabled by parallel innovations in manufacturing from the Industrial Revolution
(EX: Whitney’s cotton gin in 1793)
Big changes were the development of specialized hybrids, artificial chemical fertilizers, early chemical pesticides, and mechanization in the form of trucks, tractors, and pumps
Increased food production and allowed for better diets and therefore longer life expectancy
Modern science has had a critical role to play in horticulture and chemistry by using laboratory techniques to develop plant and animal hybrids that grow larger or under certain climatic conditions to meet the needs of farmers in different regions.
Dwarf varieties were an important plant hybrid innovation
German chemists were the first to synthesize both artificial fertilizers and chemical insecticides
Ammonium nitrate was first mass-produced as a fertilizer to replace lost nitrogen in soils
Pesticides were developed during the 1840s from natural sources and from synthetic chemicals
Included insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, and nematocides
Green Revolution: occurred in the 1950s and 1960s when tropical plant and animal hybrids and chemical fertilizers and pesticides began to be used in Third-World agriculture
Impact on the Third World has made for far greater amounts of crop production on small plots of land
Mechanization has been much slower to diffuse, mainly due to the high cost of large-scale farm equipment, excluding irrigation pumps
Some modernized practices have done significant environmental damage:
Water supplies have been depleted from irrigation and contaminated by chemical pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers
Focus on exportable cash crops can result in a loss of biodiversity and soil degradation
The rising cost of seeds, equipment, and chemicals forces many small farmers into debt
Third Agricultural Revolution:
Marked the start of a more inclusive way of farming and the internationalization of industrialized farming
Primary economic activity - farmers now produce one or more crops
Secondary economic activity - process the crop
Tertiary economic activity - advertise and market it through afarmer’s co-op or other market
The use of larger, more powerful agricultural machinery is the second hallmark of modern commercial agriculture
Replaced both human and beast in the early 20th century in the United States and then spread to Europe after World War II
Research in biotechnology and food processing has made agribusiness a truly “big business.”
Increased economies of scale, meaning that large-scale producers are able to achieve lower per-unit costs
Agricultural Production Regions
Factors that have all combined to enable industrial agriculture, or factory farming
Genetic engineering has further increased the possibilities and productivity of global agriculture
(EX: BT corn has spliced genes from a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis to make them pest-resistant)
Veterinary science and biotechnology research have developed vaccines, antibiotics, and growth hormones that have reduced farm animal mortality and increased the yields of meat, eggs, etc
Recombinant Bovine Growth Hormone, or rBGH: a synthetic hormone widely used in both the production of beef and milk in the United States and some other countries.
Investment in these drugs can significantly increase meat and milk yields, and thus increase farm profitability
The combination of genetically modified chicken breeds, avian growth hormones, and antibiotics to prevent bacterial diseases from spreading in large flocks has made indoor egg-farming operations possible
Agriculture is moving toward extensive monoculture of staple crops, especially in Anglo-America
Corporate agriculture, or agribusiness: large- scale extensive farms of several thousand acres or several thousand animals that are controlled by a single regional business
Large multinational corporations purchase hundreds of thousands of acres that are then leased to local contractors who use the company’s seed or chemicals to produce crops
Increasingly dependent on factory farms
Downer cattle: beef cows that appear ill or are lame and cannot be used for human consumption, but can wind up in pet food or animal feed instead
Low crop prices, low profitability, increasing fuel costs, and competition from big agribusiness firms have made farming very difficult for the traditional small-scale family farm
Governments extended vast amounts of low-interest loans, price supports, and other subsidy programs to aid farmers who at the time had significant political influence in agricultural states and provinces
Many farms’ mortgages were foreclosed due to the farmers’ inability to make money as a result of low commodity prices for crops
SPECIALIZED AGRICULTURE
Those who wanted to survive the farm crisis in rural areas had a few options:
Start farming as a contractor for agribusiness
Buy out other farmers and go into agribusiness for yourself
Stick with your current farm and get into specialized farm products
The public and consumers resistant to genetically modified organisms (GMOs), skeptics of artificial hormones, and those concerned about animal welfare have rejected many of the farming practices used by agribusiness
A large market for so-called natural food products has emerged, and many small family farms have restructured their operations to meet the rapidly increasing demand for such products as a result
Non-GMO Foods
Farmers can certify their products as non-GMO and bring a premium price from natural foods processors and consumers looking for the non-GMO label in the U.S. and Canada
Food from GMOs must carry a label warning consumers of the product’s contents in Europe
Consumers worry that genetically modified plants and animals could interbreed and contaminate natural food supplies or the environment, thus doing potential long-term harm
Organics, Antibiotics, and Hormone-Free
Organic: crops and animals must not be grown using genetic engineering, must be free of pesticides, antibiotics, and synthetic hormones, must not use artificial fertilizers, and must feed on completely organic crops
Seen as a much more sustainable form of farming due to the lack of artificial chemicals
Many crops have been so highly modified by hybridization that only a few commercial
heirloom varieties are available to consumers
Concerns over animal welfare and loss of flavor in agribusiness-produced meats and eggs have led to increased consumer demand for free-range poultry, eggs, and beef
Farmers must have open pastures or large outdoor poultry pens where natural vegetation grows
Grass-fed cattle have also brought significantly higher prices to gourmet consumers who seek the more natural-tasting beef, as corn- and soy-based cattle feed has been blamed for less flavorful beef
Many small farms have expanded or switched to alternative livestock such as duck, lamb, and goosesince they also produce wool and feather down for clothing and housewares for added farm earnings
There is increased consumer demand for value-added agricultural products, where food is processed on the farm and significantly increases in value, and more money goes to the farmer
Advertised by their appellation, the local or regional geographic name for the product
Champagne, Parmigiano-Reggiano, and other names are protected so that only products produced in the local area or region can have the appellation on the label.
Fair Trade
To maximize profits, some corporations pay producers at the base of the supply chain extremely low wages, forcing them to work long hours in potentially unsafe working conditions.
Fair trade movement: focuses on ensuring that small farmers and artisans are paid a fair price for their products
Businesses that want to source fair trade products typically undergo a certification process with one of several international fair trade federations and work with cooperatives of small farmers
Aquaculture
Fish farming is a rapidly growing industry that small farmers can engage in and be profitable
Aquaculture in bays and estuaries has resulted in very profitable small-scale oyster and salmon farms
General Specialized Agriculture
Specialized crops play an important role in the diversity of foods in terms of both farm economy and the cultural specificity of consumers
Small family farms and commercial farms grow these crops since they bring higher amounts of money per acre than basic grain staples
Truck farms in the eastern United States and Canada grow specialty crops during the summer growing season, since much industrial dairy production has moved to the upper Midwest
Suitcase farmers: farm owners who have city jobs but still own land in rural areas
Engage in specialty crop farming for added personal earnings and to keep old family traditions and farms alive
Community-supported agriculture (CSA): programs in which produce and other farm products are delivered directly to individual consumers
Specialty crops form Florida, South Texas, and Southern California and imports from Newland, Mexico and Australia keep Canadian and American stores stocked
Mediterranean Agriculture
Mediterranean crops that have been domesticated and continuously grown in the region:
Crops | Details |
|---|---|
Citrus | Oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruit, blood oranges |
Nut Trees | Pistachios, almonds |
Palms | Different varieties produce dates, palm oil, hearts of palm |
Olives | Many varieties for both eating and pressing for oil |
Artichokes | Flowers sold fresh for cooking or hearts preserved in oil |
Avocados | Dark-skinned Hass variety and larger green Florida type |
Grapes | Raisins and fresh fruit pressed for wine production |
Areas outside of the Mediterranean that have a similar climate and produce Mediterranean crops:
Southern and Central California
Central Florida
South Texas
Southern and Central Brazil
Southern China and Southeast Asia
Hawaii
Northern Argentina
Uruguay
Central Chile
Black Sea Coastal Areas
South Africa
Southern Australia
Plantation Agriculture
In the tropical and sub-tropical climates of the world, it is common to find extensive plantation agriculture, specialized crops intended for both domestic consumption and for export to other parts of the world
Plantation production can prove to be a risky financial investment for many countries, leading to attempts to diversify the types of crops grown for export and reduce the potential for national economic downturns due to losses from a single crop
Dairy
Dairying is done mainly with cows but can also be a specialized agricultural activity using goats and buffalo for cheese production
Yields milk for drinking, cheeses, yogurt, butter, and cream
A major concern with milk is spoilage, hence the long history of producing cheeses and yogurt to preserve excess milk for long-term usage
Milkshed: the region around a city to which fresh milk is delivered without spoiling In terms of travel time and distance
Processed dairy like cheese and yogurt production in the United States has continually moved westward over the last 150 years
Milk is often homogenized (mixed in large batches) to create a consistent flavor and sold in a number of grades based on the amount of fat content
Ultra-high temperature (UHT) pasteurization: a new milk preservation method where milk is flash-pasteurized at very high temperatures and under pressure to keep the water in it from turning to steam and then stored in a sterile box container that is sealed in plastic to prevent contamination
Women in Agriculture
Women play an essential role in global agricultural production, but face a gender gap in pay equity and access to resources
May be unpaid workers on family farms or paid labor on other farms even though women make up 43% of the agricultural labor force on average
Agricultural extension services and training exclude women in many developing countries
Female-headed farms are less likely to be extended credit than male-owned farms
Areas in which women face greater barriers in farming also tend to have higher rates of undernourishment
Global Systems of Agriculture
Agriculture accounted for a full third of the global gross domestic product (GDP) in 2014
Most of that economic activity occurs in poor and developing countries, so the ability to grow and export crops can have an enormous impact on economic growth
Commodity chains: links between producers and consumers in the journey from raw material to delivery of a finished product
Stages:
Inputs: Farming requires a number of elements to maximize both the size and quality of crop yield, such as fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides, water, tools, mechanical equipment, training, certifications, and research & development.
Production: Growing and harvesting crops takes place. Farmers and laborers who work to raise crops receive only a tiny share of the selling price of the end product.
Processing: Raw agricultural goods are turned into consumer products. Agribusinesses may contract with outside industries for services such as marketing, packaging, and transport.
Distribution: Agricultural products are sent to market by contracting with outside transport providers. This can be an independent farmers, wholesaler, or sold internationally.
Consumption: retailers and restaurants sell the final product to consumers
In the age of globalization and multinational agribusiness firms, many commodities follow a global supply chain
Affected by other factors such as infrastructure, political relationships, and economic and trade developments
Infrastructure is an essential piece of being able to move goods around a country
Internal and external political developments may impact the functionality of a supply chain
Shifting policies and political tensions often lead to reduced trade activity, or embargoes that completely ban trade or commercial interaction with a particular country
Commodity-dependent: when a single product or type of good accounts for more than 60% of its exports
The share of commodity-dependent countries sharply increases as the level of development decreases
MODELS
Von Thünen’s Model: land use (the type of farming) is determined by how labor intensive the type of farming is
Rings Explained:
Village: the organization of a central marketplace and place of consumption for the agricultural goods produced in the surrounding area
Intensive Farming: Labor-intensive crops include fruits, garden vegetables, herbs, and anything that required constant tending or weeding or that needed to be picked for market at a particular time. Labor-intensive animals include dairy cows and egg-producing poultry. Medicinal crops, such as herbs, were grown along with vegetables in town market gardens for local sale
Village Forest: A managed forest was needed to meet the energy and lumber needs of the community. Managed cutting and replanting of trees was done sustainably to be a renewable resource.
Extensive Farming: Labor-extensive crops require large plots of land and far less tending because they dominated potential weed invaders.
Grazing Lands: Highlands in peripheral areas were often not suitable for crop farming but perfect for grazing. Animals have to be moved periodically to keep from overgrazing meadows and pastures.
Cost-to-distance relationship: an inverse relationship between the value of labor and the distance from the center of the model; the higher the total labor costs, the closer it is to the center, and the lower the labor costs, the farther it is from the center
Labor costs can be equated to the price of rent paid by peasants to farm a piece of land generally owned by aristocrats under the political economy of feudalism
Land-rent curve: a mathematical function that shows the changes in rent prices across the model
Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land Use Patterns and Processes
Key Concepts:
Central place theory: all market areas are focused on a central settlement that is a place of exchange and service provision
Holds that all market areas are focused on a central settlement that is a place of exchange and service provision
The market areas of settlements (hinterlands) overlap one another at different scales
Large settlements = larger market areas, few in number
Have a larger number of services, which consumers are willing to travel large distances to access
Small settlements = smaller, more numerous market areas
Have a smaller number of services, which are closer to consumers
Research in the 1920s by German theorist Walter Christaller showed a hierarchy of places across the landscape that follow a regular pattern
Seven levels, from a small hamlet to the large regional service-center city
Used hexagons to represent individual market areas
Overlapped smaller-scale patterns with larger-scale layers of hexagonal market areas
Threshold and Range
Threshold: the minimum number of people required to support a business
Partly calculated based on the earnings of the local population
Range: the maximum distance that people are willing to travel to gain access to a service
Calculated in travel time that a consumer needs to get to a service location
Both are modified by income and travel time
Traffic patterns become more important than distance in terms of how long it takes to reach a destination
Agglomeration
Exists when similar business activities are found in a local cluster
(EX: Computer hardware and software firms in the Silicon Valley area south of San Francisco: this is due to close proximity to the high-tech growth poles of Stanford University and the NASA Ames Research Center.)
Competition within markets is common in heavily populated areas
Planning and zoning rules often push some businesses with similar building space requirements into the same local areas
Manufacturers and corporate services often locate near one another in search of technical knowledge and labor-sharing
Urban Origins
The origins of an urban place often have to do with one of two categorical factors:
Access to resources
Access to transportation
Resource nodes: towns and cities that were founded due to access to natural resources
Transport nodes: places that were founded as settlements due to their location as intersections of two or more lines of transportation
(Oceans, rivers, bays, trails, airports, roads, and rail lines)
EX: the Gold Rush in California
Resource node: Sacramento, California (gold)
Transport node: San Francisco, California (port)
Settlement Patterns
Clustered rural settlements: communities in which all of the residential and farm structures of multiple households are arranged closely together
Commonly seen in Europe and New England
Usually in places where peoples of the same culture group or clan settled nearby one another for social interaction, use of common land holdings, and security
Dispersed rural settlements: households that are separated from one another by significant distances
Seen in the farm regions of the American South, Midwest, and Great Plains
No cultural or family relations on the agricultural frontier, making people less likely to settle near one another
Circular settlements: generally a circle of homes surrounding a central open space
Found in medieval-era German and English towns, and enclosed villages of tribal herding communities in sub-Saharan Africa
Linear settlements: tend to follow along a road or a stream front
Seen in French long lots
Site and Situation
In terms of urban origins:
Site: the physical characteristics of a place or its absolute location
Situation: a place’s relationship with other locations, or its relative location
(EX: New York City’s site characteristic is that it lies on a large, deep, enclosed water harbor at the end of the navigable Hudson River, giving it an economic advantage during the colonial and postcolonial era.)
Economic site factors such as land, labor, and capital can be used to estimate the capacity of industry and services to develop in a particular place
Housing and the Built Environment
The built environment (schools, houses, workshops, stores, business, recreational facilities) has become the most important spatial environment for the majority of the world
The World Health Organization (WHO) has determined that housing is an important factor in human health.
Needs to keep its residents dry, safe, and warm
Building codes and inspections ensure that safe buildings are built and maintained for home, school, and work use
Protect us from building near floodplains or dirty, polluted rivers and industries
Must be clean and provide safe drinking water and adequate sewage and garbage-removal systems
Must be attractive and well maintained
KNOW THE MODELS
Concentric Zone Model: a model that represents the Anglo-American city of the United States and Canada during the height of industrialization
First published in 1923 by theorist Ernest Burgess
5 concentric rings:
Central business district (CBD)
Contains the highest density of commercial land use
Characterized by verticality of buildings such as the tendency to build skyscrapers that maximize the use of one parcel of urban land
Contains the peak land value intersection: the downtown intersection surrounded by the most expensive pieces of real estate
Industrial zone
An area of low-density commercial land that contains space-dependent activities such as factories, warehouses, rail yards, and port facilities
In the era of deindustrialization, many American and Canadian cities have rebuilt former industrial areas into festival landscapes
(EX: converting the spaces and buildings into parks, museums, sports stadiums, arenas, convention centers, and outdoor concert venues)
Inner city housing
Since walking and streetcars were the main modes of transport in the early 1900s, most people tended to live as close to work as possible
Ranged from poor tenements and small apartments to row houses and townhouses for better-paid workers
Renovated through a process of gentrification: the economic reinvestment into existing buildings
Suburbs
first planned developments with detached single-family homes began to appear on the periphery of American cities in 1870s
Victorian-era garden city movement: homes were designed to look like European farmhouses with front lawns, and were built for the growing urban middle class of Chicago
Home to a mostly middle-class to upper-class population
Exurbs
Commuter zone: represents a wealthy area of people who own large tracts of land outside the city
Could be described as country estates
Suitcase farmers: those who worked in the city but kept farms outside of town
The owners of other exurban homes
Still retain the feel of the large country estate homes on multi-acre lots
Many suburban and exurban areas in large cities have pushed well into traditional agricultural areas
Prompted the development of a number of regulations, including farmland protection laws, minimum-acreage zoning, and development boundary zones
Bid-rent curve: represents the cost-to-distance relationship of real estate prices in the urban landscape
A cost function that shows the exponential increase in land prices as one moves closer toward the peak land value intersection
Sector Model: combines the concepts of the industrial corridor and neighborhood for practical purposes, resulting in a much more realistic urban representation compared to the concentric zone model.
Also used to depict ethnic variations in the city
Standard central place model with the CBD at the center
Outside of the core business district, industrial space tended to be organized as a linear corridor surrounding a main transportation line
A corridor of upper-class housing extended outward from the CBD of several cities
Working-class neighborhoods radiate out from the CBD along the industrial corridor (recognized as ethnic neighborhoods by some theorists)
The middle-class areas of the city are broken into wide, separate areas radiating outward from downtown
White flight: people leaving inner-city areas of the United States
Multiple-nuclei Model of urban structure: attempts to practically represent the urban landscape with neighborhoods and commercial corridors
Represents another evolutionary step in the conceptualization of the Anglo-American city
The first recognition of suburban business districts forming on the urban periphery
New suburban CBDs were emerging in post–World War II cities, and as suburbs spread outward, service industries followed
New areas of industrial development were also located on the urban periphery
Galactic City Model or Peripheral Model
Represents the post-industrial city with its several, dispersed business districts
Represents a distinct decentralization of the commercial urban landscape as the economy has transitioned to services as the leading form of production
Specialization of manufacturing has meant that new manufacturing facilities tend to be much smaller and require low-cost land to afford to operate
Suburban retailing often occurs in multiple locations around the city
Retail center closer to the old CBD is likely an older center
Retail center located at the intersection of the belt highway and the artery leading out from the old CBD is likely a newer center
Latin American City Model
Depicts the common urban landscapes of international locations
First presented by Larry Ford and Ernst Griffin in 1980
Important as an example of the colonial city as effects of European colonial rule on many cities in Latin America, Africa, and Asia
Laws of the Indies: a number of colonial legal codes collectively enacted by the Spanish government in the New World
One of these laws dealt specifically with the planning and the layout of colonial cities
The CBD
Plaza: a central square that reproduced the style of European cities such as Madrid
Centers of government, religion, and commerce surround the plaza
Vertically oriented and most large cities have a cluster of skyscrapers at their core
The Commercial Spine
A main boulevard be constructed leading from the plaza to the outskirts of the city
Often the location for the homes of the wealthiest merchants and landowners
Today, many of these old homes have been replaced by office towers and high-rise condominiums
The Zone of Elite Housing
an area of upper-class housing straddles the spine leading outward from the city center
social status was gained by having your home along these main avenue districts
the wealthiest people tend to live on the urban periphery
The Zone of Maturity
Area of middle- to upper-class housing surrounds much of the CBD
Laws of the Indies segregated housing in Spanish colonial settlements
Only those of European descent were allowed to own homes and live within the city limits or walls
The Zone of In Situ Accretion
The area outside of the city limits or walls where people of indigenous or mixed descent made their homes
Relied primarily on local timber and mud brick, known in some areas as adobe for building materials and architecture of housing
Are areas of middle-class and working-class housing today
The Zone of Peripheral Squatter Settlements
Squatter settlements on the urban periphery are home to most of the urban poor in Latin America
Rise of industrialization and the numerous civil wars fought in rural regions, among other push and pull factors, led to an increase in rural-to-urban migration in the region
Squatters: people who settle on land that they don’t own
The land available on the urban periphery is owned by either governments or agricultural landowners
Land invasion: squatters that generally settle a new area overnight with a large number of families to avoid retributions from landowners and local police
Squatter camps can be quickly erected with makeshift homes using available building materials, such as scrap wood, plastic, and blue plastic tarps
As you move through to new squatter settlements farther out of the city, the quality of housing declines, as does the availability of utilities and other services such as bus lines
Land tenure: the legal right or title to the land upon which they build their homes
Zones of Disamenity
Squatter communities closer to the center of the city
Built on land that is deemed unsuitable for standard homes and businesses, including steep hillsides, flood plains, old industrial sites, refuse dumps, and land near airports
Settled on because of their availability and due to their close proximity to work opportunities in the city center
Southeast Asian City Model
Developed in 1967 by geographer Terrence Garry McGee
Contains some of the fastest growing and most densely populated cities in the world
Marked by high-rise developments, and some of the tallest buildings on Earth are located in this part of the world
Features a strip of upper-class housing stemming from the center, middle class residential areas close to the inner city, and the presence of squatter settlements on the periphery
Elements of a traditional CBD scattered throughout the model
Focused around the old colonial port zone, characteristic of a city centered around the export business
The Western commercial zone is functionally a CBD, but is populated primarily by Western rather than local businesses
The alien commercial zone is dominated by Chinese merchants who have migrated to these cities and typically reside in the same buildings as their businesses
The Sub-Saharan African City Model
Developed by geographer Harm De Blij in 1968
The center of the model features three distinct CBDs that reflect the history of African urban development
The former colonial CBD is laid out on a grid pattern like that of many European cities, contains the most vertical development, and is connected to other parts of the city by major, planned roads
The traditional CBD is the center of most commercial activity and is characterized by traditional, mostly single-story architecture
The market zone is an open-air area in which informal business is periodically conducted curb-side or at stalls
The mining and manufacturing zone at the outskirts of the city is indicative of the major industries found in sub-Saharan Africa
The informal satellite townships surrounding the mining and manufacturing areas are largely composed of squatter settlements, or “shantytowns”
International Urban Diversity
Cities around the world have very different urban forms and structure
Cities in Western Europe are much more compact in size than U.S. cities
Eastern Europe and countries of the former Soviet Union have Soviet era central planning
Micro districts: zones of uniform housing that provide worker housing near job sites
Cities in the developing world have widely divergent forms determined in large part by their religious makeup, colonial history, socialist influences, and many other cultural and urban land-use influences
KNOW THE CONCEPTS
Suburbanization
Though many people live in suburban apartments and townhouses, the detached single-family home is the dominant feature on the American suburban landscape.
The suburbs are predominantly middle-class, economically. However, many upper-class suburbs exist, as do some lower-class suburban neighborhoods.
The first suburban single-family homes appeared in the1890s.
The original American suburbs were culturally populated by WASPs. This changed between the late 1960s and the 1980s when suburbs become more integrated with Catholic and non-white middle-class populations, who formerly lived in inner-city areas.
In the 2010 census, just over 50 percent of the U.S. the population lived in suburban areas.
Suburbs continue to expand outward and are the largest zones within urban models.
Home Mortgage Finance and Suburban Growth
In the post of World War II United States, homeownership increased significantly as a result of federal home loan programs such as the G.I. Bill.
Other federal programs, such as the Federal Housing Administration and the public finance mortgage corporations radically increased the number of mortgages available to the American public with regulated interest rates and limited processing fees.
Demand was so high that factory-style housing construction methods that used prefabricated parts and specialized construction teams like Levittowns were common
Service Relocation in the Suburbs
The boom in suburban home construction prompted a number of small service providers to locate in suburban areas
Featured basic services like food, the family doctor, fuel, and auto repair, as well as non-basic services such as dry-cleaning and gift shops
The combination of middle-class flight from the inner city and the deindustrialization of urban manufacturing economies prompted even more and larger service providers to relocate to suburban areas
Two factors causing people to leave cities were at work:
Service providers realized much of their consumer base moved away from the old CBDs that had been the traditional service centers
Many service firms such as banks, insurance companies, and other white-collar businesses realized their labor force was moving farther and farther out from the old CBD
Suburban sprawl: the expansion of housing, transportation, and commercial development to undeveloped land on the urban periphery
A number of suburban political anti-growth movements have emerged in the United States and Canada
Groups push for new laws and regulations that slow suburban development and limit approval of new suburban roads and highways
(EX: Loudoun County, Virginia, where in the 1990s, the county board of supervisors enacted a series of growth boundaries that set minimums for the lot sizes of new homes)
Counterurbanization: the movement of inner-city or suburban residents to rural areas to escape the congestion, crime, pollution, and other negative aspects of the urban landscape
Edge Cities
First put forward by journalist Joel Garreau in 1991
To be considered an edge city, a suburban CBD would have the following characteristics:
Minimum of 5 million square feet of office space
Minimum 600,000 square feet of retail space
No city government, except where built atop an existing town
High daytime population, low nighttime population
Located at transportation nodes or along commuter corridors
Edge city growth has largely increased lateral commuting in many large metropolitan areas between suburbs and edge cities
Significant amounts of counter-commuting have been detected from downtown residences to edge city locations
City Types
Colonial City
Colonial cities: cities with origins as centers of colonial trade or administration are classified together
Many of these cities retained their European-style buildings and street networks
Newly independent governments have often changed street names and place-names to reflect local culture and social history
Fall-Line Cities
Fall-line cities: the ports that lay upstream on coastal rivers at the point where navigation was no longer possible by ocean-going ships
Fall-line: where a river’s tidal estuary transitions to an upland stream at the first set of river falls
These were economic break-in-bulk points (or break-of-bulk) where ships were offloaded and then packed with outgoing trade
Medieval Cities
Medieval cities: urban centers that predate the European Renaissance, roughly 1400 C.E.
Originally settled during the Roman era and developed into significant centers of trade and population during the medieval period
(EX: Istanbul, Turkey)
Gateway Cities
Gateway cities: places where immigrants make their way into a country
Tend to have significant immigrant populations
(EX: New York City)
Entrepôt
Entrepôt: a port city in which goods are shipped in at one price and shipped out to other port locations at a higher price, resulting in profitable trade
Made possible by the lack of customs duties (import and export taxes) that are common in most other port cities
Tend to become large centers of finance, warehousing, and the global shipping trade
(EX: Dubai, Singapore)
Megacities
Megacity: a metropolitan area with more than 10 million people
EX: Mexico City in Mexico (21.6 million), Dhaka in Bangladesh (19.6 million), Cairo in Egypt (20.0million), and Mumbai in India (20.0 million)
Megalopolis
Megalopolis: the merging of the urbanized areas of two or more cities, generally through suburban growth and expansion
Name given by French geographer Jean Gottmann following his travels through the Northeastern United States during the 1950s
Other megalopolises may form in coming decades, which may challenge Tokyo for the world’s largest conurbation, or combined city
(EX: Tokaido: Tokyo, Yokohama)
World City
World city designation signifies a metropolitan area as a global center for finance, trade, and commerce
World cities are ranked in levels of importance, and provide an example of urban hierarchy at a global scale
First-order world cities are New York City, London, and Tokyo
Second-order world cities are Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., Chicago, Frankfurt, Paris, Brussels, Zürich, Hong Kong, São Paulo, and Singapore
Third-order world cities are Miami, Toronto, Seoul, Mumbai, Amsterdam, Buenos Aires, and Sydney
Primate Cities
Primate city: when the largest city in a country has at least twice the population of the country’s next largest city
The situation of urban primacy is sometimes blamed when there is uneven economic development within a country
Rank-size rule: a country’s second largest city is half the size of its largest city; the third-largest city is one-third the size of the largest city; and so on, such that the eighth largest city is one-eighth the size of the largest city
Formula: The nth largest city is 1/n the size of the country’s largest city.
Urban Society
Segregation
De facto segregation: where no law requiring ethnic or racial segregation exists, yet they nonetheless remain zones of separation.
Historically, legal or “de jure” segregation existed in the United States in a number of ethnic and racial situations
(EX: The segregation laws against African Americans in the “Jim Crow” American South)
Chinatowns are often seen as cultural districts, but many have their origins as zones where Chinese, Filipino, and Japanese migrants were forced to live
Redlining: designating neighborhoods on company maps where home mortgage and insurance applications would be automatically denied
Historically used by banks, insurers, and real estate companies
Restrictive covenants: means of racial discrimination through the real estate system
Homeowners added special covenants to their home real estate titles, restricting future sale of a home to white-only buyers
Some white urban communities openly engaged in racial steering, mainly through the use of real estate agents
When non-whites attempted to buy homes, real estate companies or their agents purposefully drove them to racially specific neighborhoods, regardless of their income or ability to pay for a house.
Many real estate agents and developers also profited from racial prejudice in a common practice called blockbusting
Agents would convince white homeowners to sell their homes quickly and cheaply by leading them to believe that minorities were moving into their neighborhoods and that property values would consequently decline. They would then sell those homes at a considerable profit to prosperous non-whites looking to escape the inner city.
Urban Social Change
A distinct social pattern of invasion and succession typifies the long-term turnover of neighborhood social and ethnic composition
One ethnic group or economic class leaves a neighborhood and is replaced by another over time
Women and the City
The percentage of female-headed households in urban areas has increased significantly in recent decades
Geographer Susan Hansen’s work shows that the commuting patterns of female heads of household are different from male commuters
The roles of women in American and Canadian society have changed significantly in recent decades
Women make up half of the urban labor force
Women are increasingly equal (but not yet equal) to men in terms of pay, access to management positions, and political power
Urban Economies
Gentrification: the economic reinvestment in existing real estate
Deindustrialization left many older areas of cities neglected and economically depressed and many gentrifiers saw the opportunity to take old homes and storefronts and convert them into attractive modern accommodations.
People in the historical preservation movement began renovating homes in places such as Greenwich Village in New York City and Georgetown in D.C.
The whole cottage industry in gentrification had emerged in which flippers bought old homes at low prices, renovated the homes to contemporary standards, and resold them at handsome profits
Has driven out low-income residents from the community as finding new homes often becomes difficult, and displaced elderly persons can become a costly social welfare program issue for city governments
Urban Economic Growth
urban governments and investors are concerned with the infrastructure requirements of cities
economic growth tends to occur only in urban areas where utilities, transportation, safety, health, and education needs are met in terms of access and capacity
by making the city attractive to young, educated businesspeople, the hope is that major service industry firms in high-paying fields such as technology, computing, research and development, and other creative industries such as media and advertising will relocate downtown
companies tend to locate their offices near significant growth poles for their industry
economic multiplier effects around centers have resulted in a multitude of companies and investment in computer hardware and software development
Urban Sustainability
The sustainability of urban growth and development is measured in economic and environmental terms
Political attitudes and practical considerations often create a multitude of problems for urban government leaders and policymakers
City governments must address economic sustainability in terms of public services like transportation, utilities, health care access, public housing, and the most expensive: education
Since deindustrialization, large city governments have had the difficult job of balancing depressed commercial tax revenues with the high cost of maintaining municipal services
To combat the high costs of running urban governments is to combine the municipal governments of the core city with the multiple town governments of the surrounding suburbs
The Expense of Schools
The property taxes collected on homes often do not meet the cost and demand for high- quality schools in areas of the country
Resistance by homeowners to increased taxes is often expressed by voting down school bond levies, which raise money by increasing property taxes
School systems are caught between a public that does not want to pay higher taxes and parents who demand higher-quality schools
Local school districts are increasingly dependent on state governments to help meet funding needs
Urban Transportation
Traffic congestion plagues many cities in the United States and Canada
Public pressure on local politicians to come up with solutions
Local leaders are often restricted in what they can do in terms of building highways because of the high cost of road construction and federal clean air regulations that limit emissions
Air pollution from cars has two scales of environmental impact:
Locally, smog from vehicle emissions is harmful to public health and can create an unsightly haze
Globally, carbon dioxide emissions from cars are a significant source of greenhouse gases that contribute to the problem of global warming
The benefits of mass transit are having fewer cars on the highway, reduced emissions, and increased accessibility for low-income citizens
New Downtown Housing
Environmentally beneficial because it stops suburban housing sprawl from encroaching on farmland or sensitive environments such as wetlands, coastal zones, forests, or habitats of endangered species
New downtown housing can also have the added environmental benefit of reducing transportation impacts, fossil fuel use, and air pollution by having workers live downtown close to their jobs
Brownfield remediation: a process in which hazardous contaminants are removed or sealed off from former industrial sites
Mixed-use buildings contain both housing and commercial space
New Urbanism developments
Many cities have enacted zoning laws, which separate commercial and residential space
The purchase and rental prices of many new downtown housing units are so high that only the upper-middle-class income-earners can afford to live there
Unit 7: Industrial and Economic Patterns and Processes
Key Concepts:
Sectors: different categories the economy can be divided into
One common way to group economic activity and employment is by its stage in the production process, from primary production onward
Another way is to categorize sectors by the types of products or services they create, such as mining or communications
Primary production includes agriculture, mining, energy, forestry, and fisheries
Secondary production includes the processing of the raw materials drawn from the primary sector
Reflects all forms of manufacturing
Tertiary production includes the transportation, wholesaling, and retailing of finished goods to consumers
Can include other types of services that could be categorized as quaternary, such as finance, or quinary, such as government
Quaternary production includes wholesaling, finance, banking, insurance, real estate, advertising, and marketing (business services)
Quinary production includes retailing, tourism, entertainment, and communications, government, or semi-public services such as health, education, and utilities (consumer services)
Sector Categories by Product or Service Type
Important to consider the cash value of what is produced in one sector compared to other sectors
Helps explain why certain products and services are emphasized in an economy and why others might decline or be abandoned
Agriculture
Economically, what is measured is the combined cash value of what is produced, not the volume in bushels or weight in tons
Agriculture is the least valuable, despite the fact that a majority of the world’s population still lives in rural agricultural regions
Subsistence farming is very common in less-developed parts of the world as agriculture supporting the farm family and local people
Farmers in the Third World who farm plantations or work in cash-cropping generally send crops around in search of buyers
Farming is most commonly done on a commercial basis in more-developed countries with processed products sold and distributed globally
Commodity Chain
Commodity chain: exist from the small-scale, family-based producers selling directly from the farm or through local farmers’ markets to transnational supply networks selling to an international customer base
Tea production employs millions of people worldwide, most of them living in remote poverty-stricken rural communities
Most of the profits are made at the retail end of tea’s commodity chain and the oversupply of tea (combined with the poverty of the producers) is a matter of great concern to international aid groups
Natural Resources
Natural resource production can be divided into two pairs of linked sectors based on their renewability and prices:
Mining and energy extraction can be valuable depending on the global commodity prices
Oil (petroleum) became highly valuable in 2008 and was traded for over $120 per barrel in mid-summer, only to fall below $50 per barrel by the year’s end
Fisheries and timber markets are not as volatile, but have increased in price and value over the years due to reduced supply
In these heavily regulated and increasingly protected natural resources, companies must use more technology and larger processing facilities to remain profitable and meet growing consumer demand
Renewability
Minerals and fossil fuel energy are nonrenewable products
Some mineral products like metals and glass can be recycled
Energy sources that do not run on fossil fuels are generally renewable if managed properly
Alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, nuclear, tidal, and geothermal power tend to be more expensive to harness than fossil fuels and are thus less common
Sustainability
Products drawn from living resources like fisheries and forestry are renewable
How trees are cut and how fish are caught makes a difference in terms of overall ecosystem survival and sustainability
(EX: a two-mile-long microfilament gill nets to catch fish is considered an unsustainable practice that harms the ocean ecosystem)
Manufacturing
Hallmark of economic development, and factory-made products far out-value those of agricultural and natural resource–based economies.
Manufactured goods are farm products and natural resources that have been taken through value-added processing
Durable goods and non-durable goods, divides production based on the amount of time the product is going to be used
Resource processing: oil refineries, metals, plastics, chemicals, lumber, paper, food and beverage, concrete and cement, glass
Textiles: clothing, shoes and leather products, artificial fibers and thread
Furniture: home, office, bedding
Appliances: home appliances, commercial equipment, power tools, lighting
Transport: automotive, rail, aerospace, shipbuilding, recreational vehicles
Health: pharmaceuticals, medical devices, personal care products
Technology: home computers, business computing and servers, industrial control devices, phones, television and audio entertainment
Services
Services are intangible products, as opposed to manufactured goods, which are physically tangible or touchable
Low-benefit services: sectors in which the labor force tends to be hourly employees who receive few if any additional benefits, like paid vacation or health insurance
High-benefit services: sectors in which pay tends to be salaried and includes considerable fringe benefits like health, dental, and vision insurance; vacation; sick days; and retirement reimbursements
Service firms are typically classified by the type of activity performed as part of the service
Deindustrialization
The United States and Canadian services produce the majority of the countries’ economic value and employment
Roughly 80 percent of these economies’ value is drawn from services, only 19 percent from manufacturing and resources, and a mere 1 percent from agriculture
Deindustrialization: shifting away from manufacturing as the main source of economic production
Downside is that millions of factory workers lost jobs and many old industrial cities suffered from the economic downturn
Manufacturing businesses had to focus on highly priced manufactured goods like vehicles, heavy equipment, and computing devices to keep profits and investment up amid foreign competition and keep the remaining First-World manufacturing labor force paid and employed
Understanding Why Services Are Important in America
Cheaper off-shore locations overseas to build factories
Deindustrialization has to do with the investment value of each sector
Investors in new businesses are looking to maximize their returns on investment, and services are the most valuable investments out there
Moving from natural resources to manufactured products adds a massive amount of value
The Importance of High Technology for Services
To better understand services is to think historically about how technology has affected economies:
In agricultural history, the development of the plow is the technical advancement that revolutionized farming and radically increased the amount of land that could be cultivated.
During the industrial era, the product that made all manufacturing possible was steel (railroad locomotives to skyscrapers and automobiles are made possible by steel alloys).
In the service economy era, the computer makes all sectors of the service economy more efficient and capable of handling large numbers of consumers and data.
The microchip–miniature processor circuits, has made desktop computers possible as well as smaller handheld and wireless devices
Levels of Development
Used categorize countries in terms of their levels of economic development
Compare development level verbally and to acknowledge the patterns of uneven development in the world economy
First World: industrialized and service-based economies that have free markets, a high level of productivity value per person and a high quality of life
(EX: Norway, Switzerland, Iceland, Israel, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, United States, Canada)
Second World: describes the communist countries of which only two communist states remain today: Cuba and North Korea
Centrally planned economies
Still restructuring their economy to free-market systems like the former Soviet Union and Eastern European states
Newly industrialized countries are still controlled by communist parties but that have adapted free-market reforms to their economies
Third World: countries with mainly agricultural and resource-based economies that have low levels of per-person productivity and a low quality of life
Underdeveloped states are found across Latin America, the Caribbean, Africa, and the Asian countries
Some made a distinct economic shift toward industrialization and urbanization
Others remain firmly in a rural, agricultural category
More developed countries (MDCs) and less developed countries (LDCs) are terms used to describe the relative economic differences between states
First- and Second-World countries generally tend to fit in the MDC category, while Third, Fourth, and Fifth Worlds are LDCs
Rule: $10,000 GNP per capita, above it are MDCs, below it, LDCs
Newly industrialized countries (NICs): Third-World states with economies that have made a distinct shift away from agriculture and toward manufacturing as the focus of economic development and production
In a constant process of building infrastructure (roads, ports, power plants, water systems, railways), which facilitate the construction and operation of factories
Have rapid population growth and are usually on the border of stage two and stage three of the demographic transition model
Experience rapid rural-to-urban migration as their economies industrialize and, as a result, urbanize
Funds to develop infrastructure and factories can come from internal sources, from foreign aid, or from foreign direct investment (FDI)
Technology transfer: where technical knowledge, training, and industrial equipment is provided to NIC governments to increase business efficiency and capacity
FDI is money from international private investors or investment firms in other countries who are looking to earn a profit
Development loans sought by NICs to help pay for new large-scale infrastructure projects
To help develop the necessary infrastructure to attract FDI, some NICs seek international development loans from organizations like the World Bank
(EX: electric power systems, dams, water purification and waste treatment centers, pipelines, highways, and national rail systems)
Foreign development aid is money provided by donor state governments in the First World that is not expected to be given back
When women are given an education, they contribute to forming capital, which lifts their communities, and their nations experience economic growth
India’s Jump to Services
High-tech markets in software development and computing services began to open up in India due to certain comparative advantages it has over other NICs
The English-language heritage of India’s colonial past with Britain has two distinctly positive effects:
Access to the American technology markets via language
A large number of educated workers who speak the language
China’s Demand for Energy
Industrial development in China and the newly earned wealth of the Chinese people have combined to create a large demand for energy in industry and transportation
Coal has been the primary source for electrical production and is plentiful
Oil demand is high, as industry and Chinese citizens have more use for trucks and personal cars
Asian Tigers: Old and New
Asian Tigers: a term used to describe the industrial economies of Asia that have been aggressive in terms of economic growth rates and their ability to compete for consumers
The building of a large manufacturing capacity in the Old Asian Tigers was the result of Cold War realities in the region
These states were seen as free-market bastions against the spread of Communism
Highly efficient factories and a focus on product quality in both Japan and Korea had created significant market share in the American automobile and electronics markets by the 1980s
Foreign competition along with the oil shocks of the 1970s triggered deindustrialization in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe
(EX: Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore)
Manufacturing development in the New Asian Tigers was mainly funded through FDI that came from firms in New York, London, and Tokyo, as well as from companies in South Korea and Taiwan that constructed and operated the factories in the New Tigers
The New Asian Tigers offered cheap labor and low-cost land and resources, as well as few labor and environmental regulations that had become costly for businesses in the First World.
(EX: China, India, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam)
The Asian Economic Crisis
Growth in all of Asia came to an abrupt halt in 1997
A banking crash in South Korea rippled through the region and resulted in a credit crisis
Money to develop new factories and infrastructure projects in the New Asian Tigers dried up as a result
Credit crunch: results from banks and investors holding back on industrial loans and investments
The 1997 Asian economic crisis also was the trigger for deindustrialization in the Old Asian Tigers
Large firms, like Japan’s Toyota and the Korean Hyundai conglomerate, had employed extra workers and their adult children under a traditional benefits system of guaranteed family employment
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Industrialization rapidly transformed the global economic landscape and the way that people lived
Great Britain
The process of industrialization began in the second half of the 18th century in Great Britain
Two driving forces that undoubtedly contributed to Britain’s shift to an industrialized society: a significant shift in the size and distribution of the population.
The availability of coal and iron ore allowed British industry to rapidly mechanize
These two essential resources were ultimately the key combination behind one of the Industrial Revolution’s most important inventions: the railroad
Effects of Industrialization
Saw major shifts in the size and distribution of their populations in surrounding European nations and to the United States by the mid-19th century
Technological advancements in manufacturing enabled concurrent innovations in agriculture, spawning the Second Agricultural Revolution
The use of new mechanical devices in agriculture also reduced the need for farm labor, just as the proliferation of factories in centralized areas called for a much larger workforce in cities
Caused major shifts in family and class structures
Industrialization did not meant an end to child labor—it meant that children were sent to work in factories rather than alongside their parents on the family farm
Workers began to organize into cooperative societies and trade unions, which provided benefits and services to their members and began to advocate for higher wages and better working conditions
The latter part of the 19th century also saw a burgeoning middle class of professionals such as merchants, engineers, factory owners, doctors, and lawyers
Women were increasingly discouraged from joining the workforce and instead were expected to focus on raising children and maintaining a comfortable home
Global Impact
Productivity increased exponentially due to mechanization, helping turn these countries into economic powerhouses
Periods of explosive growth are followed by periods of economic crises
The productivity boom in industrialized
European countries left them hungry for both raw materials and new markets for their finished goods
European nations had been colonizing other parts of the world for centuries, the speed and scope of this “new imperialism” was unprecedented
Were able to easily colonize vast areas of Africa and Asia due to technological advancements
KNOW THE MATH
Measures of Development
Economic indicators are used to help understand the variable levels of development and measure the degrees of uneven development between states
Gross Domestic Product
Gross domestic product (GDP): the dollar value of all goods and services produced in a country in one year
Measures the total volume of a country’s economy and is done without adjusting for international trade; therefore, it measures only the domestic economy: GDP = GOODS + SERVICES
GDP for the most-recent three-month quarter of the year grew by 3.5 percent over the previous three months
Gross National Income
Gross national income (GNI): the dollar value of all goods and services produced in a country, plus the dollar value of exports minus imports in the same year
Measures economic value
GNI includes wealth gained when money comes from other countries for exports: GNI = GOODS + SERVICES + (EXPORTS – IMPORTS)
Trade Surplus: (EXPORTS > IMPORTS)
This is a positive number, and adds value to the economy.
Trade Deficit: (EXPORTS < IMPORTS)
This is a negative number, and removes value from the economy.
Per Capita Calculations
Per capita: “for every head” in Latin, meaning for each person
Gross national income (GNI) per capita: the estimated income of a person converted to U.S. dollars at currency exchange rates
A modified form of GDP per capita
Level of development comparisons are done by dividing the volume of the economy by the population, like so:
GDP per capita = (GOODS + SERVICES) ÷ POPULATION
GNI per capita = [(GOODS + SERVICES) + (EXPORTS – IMPORTS)] ÷ POPULATION
A relative standard of living measured by the services that such productivity provides for the population
Gross national income purchasing power parity (GNI PPP): an estimate that takes into account differences in prices between countries
Human Development Index (HDI): designed by the United Nations to measure the level of development of states based on a number of social indicators in addition to economic production
An indexed score from 0.00 to 1.00 is calculated for countries by combining GDP per capita, the adult literacy rate, average level of education, and total life expectancy
Intent is to provide a more balanced measure of development and indicate some of the factors that illustrate the negative impact of poverty on economic potential in Third-World countries
Gini coefficient: measures the level of income disparity between the country’s richest and poorest population groups on a scale of 0 to 100
Gender-Related Development Index (GDI): takes the same indicators used to calculate HDI but replaces GDP per capita with income
The sectoral structure can be considered in the evaluation of an economy
Other ways to measure an economy include measuring the size of the black market, income distribution, use of fossil fuels, and even “soft” indicators such as infant mortality rates and literacy rates
KNOW THE THEORIES
The Demographic Transition Link
Each of the stages represents a type of economic context, and that the economy directly impacts the patterns of birth rates, death rates, and population
Rostow’s Stages of Growth
Developed in the 1950s by theorist Walt Rostow
Proposed that countries went through five stages of growth between agricultural and service-based economies
Each country had at least some form of comparative advantage that could be utilized in international trade and thus fund the country’s economic development over time
Traditional society:
Economy is focused on primary production such as agriculture and fishing
Country’s limited wealth is spent internally on things that do not promote economic development
Technical knowledge is low
Preconditions for takeoff:
The country’s leadership begins to invest the country’s wealth in infrastructure such as roads, ports, electrification, and school systems that promote economic development and trade relations with other nations
More technical knowledge is learned that stimulates the economy
Takeoff:
Economy begins to shift focus onto a limited number of industrial exports
Participates in traditional agriculture, but the labor force begins to shift to factory work
Technical experience is gained in industrial production and business management
Drive to maturity:
Technical (or technological) advancements diffuse throughout the country
Workers become increasingly skilled and educated, and fewer people are engaged in traditional activities like agriculture
Age of mass consumption:
An industrial trade economy develops in which highly specialized production such as vehicles, energy, and consumer products dominate the economy
Technical knowledge and education levels are high
Agriculture is mechanized (no longer traditional) and employs a small labor force
Negatives:
The colonial legacy and other barriers to development such as government corruption or capital flight are not accounted for in Rostow’s theory
He assumed that all countries could progress smoothly through the stages if their investment focused on trade and technology development
Dependency Theory
Dependency theory: holds that most LDCs (including all NICs) are highly dependent on foreign-owned factories, foreign direct investment, and technology from MDCs to provide employment opportunities and infrastructure
Third-World countries get stuck in a continuous cycle of dependency on First-World loans to pay for additional economic development needs
Prebisch thesis: detailed the dependency of Third-World economies on First-World loans and investments to pay for the building of new industries and infrastructure
At the heart stands a claim about the dominant role of First World–based transnational corporations (TNCs) and investors in a postcolonial exploitation of the Third World in which MDCs have economically and politically subordinated LDC populations
Some describe this as economic imperialism in a modern reference to the European empires of the colonial era
Creates additional economic risks, as Third- World economies are also subject to the level of demand for LDC-made products and the overall global economic climate
Market stagnation in an LDC product can be catastrophic to its economy and harm the quality of life of its citizens
Breaking the Cycle of Dependency
LDC policies and programs that attempted to increase capital accumulation within Third-World national economies:
Internalization of economic capital: requires companies to deposit profits from factories in LDC banks and reinvest locally, preventing capital flight, which occurs when factory earnings are sent to banks back in the First World where they cannot be used to further local development in the LDC
Import substitution: Instead of buying simple First World–made consumer products like laundry soap, this approach calls for building laundry soap factories and producing it within the LDC. The manufacturing profits can then be sent to LDC banks and reinvested locally.
Nationalization of natural resource-based industries**:** foreign corporate ownership of oil fields and mines robs the national government and local companies of potential earnings
Profit-sharing agreements: In China, Vietnam, and a few local cases elsewhere, foreign companies are given permission to build new factories on land leased to them by the government.
Technology development programs: Some countries have used their limited public funds to invest in high-technology equipment and worker training for locally owned manufacturers.
Tourism
By attracting international tourists, countries can gain large inputs of cash from foreign countries without having to export manufactured goods
Beach resorts, golf, skiing, wine regions, historical districts, and cultural attractions like festivals and archaeological sites can all create tourist draw
Ecotourism: tourism directed toward exotic, often threatened, natural environments, intended to support conservation efforts and observe wildlife
Free-Trade Agreements
Regional free-trade agreements between states have become a common way to improve international trade
Supranational free-trade zones like the European Union (EU) and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have made regional economies of multiple states much stronger and have opened the doors of development for less-developed neighbors
Mexico has benefited significantly from its free-trade relationship with the United States and Canada. The NAFTA treaty, signed in 1991, went into full effect in 2001 with the full removal of all tariffs (taxes on goods that cross international borders) between the three members.
Free-Market Reforms
Communist states like China and Vietnam began to reform the old Soviet-style command economy in which all economic production was managed and planned by the central government
The most significant reform is allowing foreign companies to open factories and retail services in these countries
China established the first special economic zones (SEZs) in 1980, in which foreign firms were allowed to build facilities in coastal port cities
SEZs: a type of export processing zone, defined as port locations where foreign firms are given special tax privileges to incentivize trade
Economic productivity has more than tripled in China and Vietnam since the introduction of the reforms
Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory
Immanuel Wallerstein developed a world systems theory that also sought to explain uneven development around the world in the 1970s
Believed the modern nation-state was birthed in Europe as a way of protecting capitalist interests, which were based on the same highly unequal division of labor as feudalism
Core nations are the most developed and economically influential in the world.
Hold significant cultural, military, and especially economic dominance over the rest of the world
Import goods from periphery nations, taking advantage of those countries’ cheap labor, raw materials, and agriculture
Periphery nations are the least developed.
Weak governments, high social inequality, dependent economies
Heavily influenced and exploited by core countries
Semi-periphery nations fall in between the core and periphery in terms of development and influence.
Can play both peripheral and core-like roles
Able to assert some dominance over the periphery, but they can also be influenced and to some extent exploited by the core
Industrial Location Theory
From Alfred Weber’s work, whose 1909 Theory of Industrial Location is still influential, the selection of optimal factory locations has much to do with the minimization of land, labor, resource, and transportation costs
Weber states that, in terms of location, manufactured goods can be classified into two categories based on the amount of input in relation to product output:
Weight-losing, or bulk-reducing, manufacturing involves a large amount of input that is reduced to a final product that weighs less or has less volume or bulk than the input
Weight-gaining, or bulk-gaining, manufacturing involves a number of inputs that are combined to make a final product that gains bulk, volume, or weight in the production process
Weight-Losing Industries
In weight-losing processing in which there is only one major input, such as seafood packaging, lumber mills, and metal ore-processing or smelting, the industrial location is in very close proximity to the resource location.
(EX: The industrial location of steel factories is dependent on four major inputs: iron ore, coal, limestone, and water. Iron ore is most distance elastic, meaning it can be transported over short or long distances to the steel plant, whereas coal, limestone, and water need to be in close proximity.)
Weight-Gaining Industries
Weight-gaining manufacturing generally involves the assembly of several inputs into a finished product
The finished product is more bulky and thus more costly to transport, the factory location should be relatively close to consumers to minimize delivery costs
(EX: An issue for food products like bread is the limited shelf life that also affects industrial location. Bread, milk, and other perishable products tend to be manufactured in many individual plants that serve the local regions. This decentralized network approach keeps fresh products in stores longer by reducing transportation time. Bread production is so decentralized that bakeries are found in all cities and are an example of ubiquitous industries.)
The Geography of Supply Chains
A supply chain exists when parts are assembled into components that are then joined together to create larger finished products
EX: Automobiles are an example of heavy industry that requires a large supply chain network to support the assembly of a final product.
Fordist production (Fordism): relied on a single company owning all aspects of production, from steel manufacture to advertising.
In the Post-Fordist era, car companies changed and became dependent on large networks of regional supply chains.
Just-in-time production: methods in which suppliers send parts to assembly plants on an as-needed basis
Retail Location Theory
The precise location of retail services is spatially dependent on the relationship between variable cost and revenue surfaces based on local geography
Spatial margin of profitability: the area where local demand for a service creates revenue higher than the local costs of doing business
Used to define these areas of maximization
Service Location Theory
The location of businesses in the service economy era (since the 1990s) has become a new area of research in economic geography
Recent work has focused on the location of high-benefit services
Footloose industry: businesses whose locations are not tied to resources, transportation, or consumer locations
Often corporate executives are interested in a location for a number of particular qualities that compose a “best fit” for their corporate culture
Economist Richard Florida has proposed that there is a creative class of high-benefit service-industry firms and workers
Local economic development programs have become focused on the attraction of “creative” firms and laborers
Agglomeration
Refers to the concentration of human activities in a cluster or around a central place
Agglomeration economies: exist where firms with related or similar products locate together in clusters or regions
Together, the firms enjoy the advantages of a shared skilled-labor pool, specialized suppliers, and service providers and can share (or steal) technical knowledge on production or marketing
Deglomeration: occurs when a location is overloaded with similar firms and services
If local resources or the labor pool are fully utilized or over-utilized, some firms may seek alternate locations to expand to or may move all operations completely
The Foreign Auto Firms Move South
As Japanese firms looked into American production sites, they found further reduced-cost advantages as they moved south from Michigan and Ohio.
These northern unionized-labor states had higher payroll and benefit costs which were ingrained into state workforce regulations.
Southern locations were right-to-work states where regulation does not favor unions and did not impact pay benefit costs.
KNOW THE MAPS
Industrial Regions
North America:
American Industrial Belt or “Rust Belt” following deindustrialization
Canadian Industrial Heartland or Canada’s “Main Street”
Piedmont Industrial Region
Europe
British Midlands
Ruhr Valley
Northern Italy or the “Third Italy”
Asia
Japan
Korea
Taiwan
China
Economies of Scale
Economies of scale: achieved when producers expand their operations but incur lower per-unit costs in the process
When a company increases output of a single product, it can save money by purchasing supplies in bulk, managing more workers, financing large sums of credit at lower interest rates, and negotiating discounts for per-mile transportation costs in larger bulk amounts
Economies of scope: in which companies benefit from the increase in the number of different products under a larger brand name
Larger economies of scope are especially useful when one product at the end of its useful life, or product cycle, is replaced by a new model or alternative device
Women in Development
Women work more hours per day (in paid and unpaid labor) than men in every country in the world except in Anglo America and Australia
Women in the paid workforce are also growing in numbers across the world in both developed and developing countries and regions
Their role in society is changing and improving as opportunities for education, childcare, and maternity benefits open up
In 2000, the United Nations developed a mandate called the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which was designed with the intention of eradicating poverty by the year 2015.