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Years Between The Wars Review

Years Between The Wars Review

  1.  Dawes Plan: After World War 1, Germany was given war guilt and reparation payments of 32 billion dollars. In 1924, American banker Charles Dawes loaned 200 million dollars to Germany to help pay reparations. This became known as the Dawes Plan, and successfully helped Germany recover financially.


  1. League of Nations: The Treaty of Versailles created the League of Nations with the goal of keeping international peace. Though it was originally one of Wilson’s 14 points, the US practiced isolationism instead since it considered the decision to punish Germany too harsh. The League of Nations’ weaknesses were that it did not have the US, the most powerful country. It also did not have a military, ultimately making it useless.


  1. Herbert Hoover: Herbert Hoover was the 31st president of the United States of America during the Great Depression. He was in office from 1929 to 1933. At the time, the American people blamed him for the Great Depression.


  1. Locarno Treaties: In 1925, the seven Locarno Treaties were negotiated in Switzerland. Organized by German foreign minister, Gustav Stresemann, and France’s foreign minister, Aristide Briand, the goal was to improve international relationships. Belgium, England, and Italy also signed the treaty. It was a mutual agreement of peace and meant the countries began to accept things as they were. 


  1. Kellogg-Briand Pact: The “spirit of Locarno'' was the hope for peace that followed after the Locarno treaty in 1925. It led to the Kellogg-Briand Pact arranged by Frank Kellogg and France’s Briand. Signed by almost every country in the world, the pledge promised to “renounce war as an instrument of national policy,” meaning that war was outlawed. Of course, this didn’t work since there was no way to enforce the treaty. Another weakness was that the US did not join. Still, the idea was a step forward.


  1. Mussolini: Italy’s failure to secure territory at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference led to the rise of Fascism, a political movement emphasizing loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader. Social unrest caused by inflation and unemployment led people to lose faith in the democratic government. As a result, Italians looked to a strong leader to revive the economy and rebuild its armed forces. Benito Mussolini was an Italian newspaper editor and politician who had founded the Fascist Party in 1919. He publicly criticized the government and played on the fear of a workers’ revolt to gain support from industrial leaders, the aristocracy, and the middle class. Mussolini seized power in October 1922, when 30,000 Fascists stormed Rome, forcing King Victor Emmanuel III to abdicate and name Mussolini “Il Duce”. Mussolini abolished democracy and proclaimed Fascism the sole political party. He used propaganda, police brutality, censorship, and indoctrination to control Italy socially and to maintain support of the people. Economically, functions were controlled by the state and Mussolini sought to do so by allying with the Fascists with large landowners and industrialists.


  1. How Mussolini Seized Power: Italy’s failure to secure territory at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference led to the rise of Fascism, a political movement emphasizing loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader. Social unrest caused by inflation and unemployment led people to lose faith in the democratic government. As a result, Italians looked to a strong leader to revive the economy and rebuild its armed forces. Benito Mussolini was an Italian newspaper editor and politician who had founded the Fascist Party in 1919. He publicly criticized the government and played on the fear of a workers’ revolt to gain support from industrial leaders, the aristocracy, and the middle class. Mussolini seized power in October 1922, when 30,000 Fascists stormed Rome, forcing King Victor Emmanuel III to abdicate and name Mussolini “Il Duce”.


  1. Mussolini’s Economic and Social Power: Mussolini abolished democracy and proclaimed Fascism the sole political party. He used propaganda, police brutality, censorship, and indoctrination to control Italy socially and to maintain support of the people. Economically, functions were controlled by the state and Mussolini sought to do so by allying with the Fascists with large landowners and industrialists.


  1. Totalitarian Rule: Totalitarianism is a political system in which the government has total control over all aspects of life, both public and private. Known as dynamic leaders, dictatorships or ruling political parties convince the people to follow them by promising security and direction. All citizens are expected to approve, and it works to erase the line between society and the government. Citizens are denied basic liberties and the state expects personal sacrifice for its benefit. Tools that leaders use to ensure loyalty of the people and end opposition include mass communication such as propaganda and military weapons, surveillance, and violence. Extreme measures of enforcement include police terror, indoctrination, censorship, and even persecution. These actions are justified by the government, as they are made in the “best interest” of the state.

 

  1. Examples of totalitarianism leaders in the 20th century include Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, Kim IL Sung, and Hussein: Adolf Hitler was the German totalitarian leader from 1922 to 1945. Benito Mussolini ruled Italy from 1925 to 1943 and Joseph Stalin dictated the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1953. North Korean Kim IL Sung ruled from 1948 to 1994, and Saddam Hussein controlled Iraq from 1979 to 2003.


  1. Francisco Franco: In 1931, Spain changed from a monarchy to a republic run by liberals and Socialists. In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War began when Fascists joined General Fransisco Franco in a revolt. Hitler and Mussolini sent supplies to help Franco’s Nationalists. Supporters of Spain’s elected government, the Republicans, received little help. Western democracies stayed neutral but the USSR sent help and volunteers joined the fight. In 1939, the Republicans collapsed and Francisco became Spain’s Fascist dictator.


  1. The Third Reich: The regime in Germany from 1933 to 1945 became known as the Third Reich. It is also known as Nazi Germany and was the period where Adolf Hitler gained control and established a dictatorship.


  1. Authoritarian Rule in Eastern Europe: Many countries put an end to authoritarian governments, monarchies, and dynasties, and instead tried democracy. France, England, and the US were able to preserve their democracies, but countries like Italy, Germany, and Russia turned to authoritarian leaders.


  1. II Duce: Italy’s failure to secure territory at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference led to the rise of Fascism, a political movement emphasizing loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader. Social unrest caused by inflation and unemployment led people to lose faith in the democratic government. As a result, Italians looked to a strong leader to revive the economy and rebuild its armed forces. Benito Mussolini was an Italian newspaper editor and politician who had founded the Fascist Party in 1919. He publicly criticized the government and played on the fear of a workers’ revolt to gain support from industrial leaders, the aristocracy, and the middle class. Mussolini seized power in October 1922, when 30,000 Fascists stormed Rome, forcing King Victor Emmanuel III to abdicate and name Mussolini “Il Duce” (The Leader). Mussolini abolished democracy and proclaimed Fascism the sole political party. He used propaganda, police brutality, censorship, and indoctrination to control Italy socially and to maintain support of the people. Economically, functions were controlled by the state and Mussolini sought to do so by allying with the Fascists with large landowners and industrialists.


  1. Rome-Berlin Axis:The Rome-Berlin Axis was the coalition formed between Italy and Germany on October 25, 1936. It was arranged by Galleazzo Ciano, Italy’s foreign prime minister and joined the two fascist countries led by Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler.


  1. Black Shirts: The Black Shirts were the Italian Fascist militia army led by Mussolini. Also known as the Squadristi, the Black Shirts aimed to defeat Socialists and any opposition to Fascism.


  1. Weimar Republic AND Its Struggles: Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9, 1918. He was the last German Emperor, and the Weimar Republic took his place. It was the system of government until 1933, when Nazi Germany gained power. Many Germans disliked the Weimar Republic for signing the Treaty of Versailles, even though it was forced by the Allied Powers. The Republic also faced hyperinflation, political extremism, and contentious relationships with the victors of WW1. It also lacked democratic tradition.


  1. Inflation: Unable to pay off 32 billion dollars in reparations, Germany started to print money. This inflation decreased the value of the mark so much that the currency was basically worthless. During the Great Depression, the rate of inflation was negative (deflation), leading to the collapse in investment.


  1. Stock Market Crash: The stock market crashed on October 29, 1929. Soaring prices for stocks meant that people began buying stocks on margin. Margin buying meant that people paid a small percent of a stock’s price as a down payment, and then borrowed the rest from a stockbroker. So long as the prices were rising, this system worked. However, investors have no money to pay off the loan should the prices fall. In 1929, stock prices were unnaturally high, and investors began selling the stocks, believing the prices would decrease. However, the prices plummeted, and everyone wanted to sell stocks while no one wanted to buy.

  

  1. The Great Depression: The Great Depression was the worst economic depression and lasted from 1929 to 1939. Flaws in the US economy that led to it was the unequal distribution of wealth, overproduction, underconsumption, buying stock on margin, laying off workers, selling stocks with no buyers, and speculation. These led to the stock market crash which was the catalyst for the Great Depression. As a result, millions became unemployed, the country faced bankruptcy, governments were forced to take emergency actions, people lost faith in capitalism and democracy, and nations turned to totalitarianism leaders. Longterm effects included Nazi control, fascism, Japan expanding, welfare programs, and eventually even WW2. 


  1. Margin Buying: The stock market crashed on October 29, 1929. Soaring prices for stocks meant that people began buying stocks on margin. Margin buying meant that people paid a small percent of a stock’s price as a down payment, and then borrowed the rest from a stockbroker. So long as the prices were rising, this system worked. However, investors have no money to pay off the loan should the prices fall.


  1. Weak Spots in American Economy:Flaws in the US economy that led to it was the unequal distribution of wealth, overproduction, underconsumption, buying stock on margin, laying off workers, selling stocks with no buyers, and speculation. These led to the stock market crash which was the catalyst for the Great Depression. As a result, millions became unemployed, the country faced bankruptcy, governments were forced to take emergency actions, people lost faith in capitalism and democracy, and nations turned to totalitarianism leaders. Longterm effects included Nazi control, fascism, Japan expanding, welfare programs, and eventually even WW2. 


  1. Global Impact of the Stock Crash: High tariffs were placed on imported goods, and countries depending on exporting goods to the US suffered. Other nations began to raise tariffs and world trade dropped by 65%, furthering the economic downfall and increasing unemployment rates.


  1. Post War Problems in England: Post war, England suffered a 25% unemployment rate. 50% of their merchant ships were lost in war, and high tariffs were imposed. They became complacent with industrialization and therefore fell behind in technology. They also were forced to borrow millions of dollars from the US and did not receive financial help from Germany who was unable to pay reparations. Still they remained a stable democracy. 


  1. Issues in Spain/Francisco Franco: In 1931, Spain changed from a monarchy to a republic run by liberals and Socialists. In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War began when Fascists joined General Fransisco Franco in a revolt. Hitler and Mussolini sent supplies to help Franco’s Nationalists. Supporters of Spain’s elected government, the Republicans, received little help. Western democracies stayed neutral but the USSR sent help and volunteers joined the fight. In 1939, the Republicans collapsed and Francisco became Spain’s Fascist dictator.


  1. Rearmament: Rearmament is the process of equipping military forces with a new supply of weapons. It occured in both Britain and Germany, and helped create new jobs for the unemployed.


  1. How France Recovered from WWI: France had a self-sufficient economy and was heavily agricultural. Still, 1 million French were unemployed and the economic crisis led to political instability. Five coalitions began and failed in 1933. Finally in 1936, Socialists, moderates, and Communists formed the Popular Front Coalition that passed reforms to help workers. Though not very effective, France was able to preserve its democratic government.


  1. A Coalition Government: A Coalition Government is a temporary alliance of different political parties. These were formed since no single party could win a parliamentary majority. Since parties disagreed on policies, coalitions never lasted long. These frequent changes in the government made it difficult for democratic countries to build strong leadership and work towards long term goals.

  2. The Maginot Line:  The Maginot line was a physical wall built by the French along the German border to protect against invasions. However, it failed as modern war technology made it easy to simply go over or around it.


  1. The USA’s Post War Policy: The US practiced isolationism and stayed out of foreign affairs. 


  1. The Non-Aggression Pact: This pact was signed by Germany and Russia, and was the agreement to not fight for 10 years so that Poland could be split. This also allowed Stalin to build a military and for Hitler to avoid a two front war. The agreement was broken after only two years, when hitler invaded Russia.


  1. The New Deal: Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated the New Deal, a program in which public work projects created jobs for the unemployed. FInancial aid was distributed, and welfare. Relief programs opened. It was the first time that people began to depend on the government. Eventually, the New Deal reformed the economic system and restored faith in democracy.


  1. Tariffs: Tariffs are taxes on imports. During the Great Depression, high tariffs were placed on imports so that US dollars would remain in the country to be used on American goods. This plan failed as countries depending on the exportation of goods to the US suffered and were forced to also impose high tariffs in their own countries.



Years Between The Wars Review

  1.  Dawes Plan: After World War 1, Germany was given war guilt and reparation payments of 32 billion dollars. In 1924, American banker Charles Dawes loaned 200 million dollars to Germany to help pay reparations. This became known as the Dawes Plan, and successfully helped Germany recover financially.


  1. League of Nations: The Treaty of Versailles created the League of Nations with the goal of keeping international peace. Though it was originally one of Wilson’s 14 points, the US practiced isolationism instead since it considered the decision to punish Germany too harsh. The League of Nations’ weaknesses were that it did not have the US, the most powerful country. It also did not have a military, ultimately making it useless.


  1. Herbert Hoover: Herbert Hoover was the 31st president of the United States of America during the Great Depression. He was in office from 1929 to 1933. At the time, the American people blamed him for the Great Depression.


  1. Locarno Treaties: In 1925, the seven Locarno Treaties were negotiated in Switzerland. Organized by German foreign minister, Gustav Stresemann, and France’s foreign minister, Aristide Briand, the goal was to improve international relationships. Belgium, England, and Italy also signed the treaty. It was a mutual agreement of peace and meant the countries began to accept things as they were. 


  1. Kellogg-Briand Pact: The “spirit of Locarno'' was the hope for peace that followed after the Locarno treaty in 1925. It led to the Kellogg-Briand Pact arranged by Frank Kellogg and France’s Briand. Signed by almost every country in the world, the pledge promised to “renounce war as an instrument of national policy,” meaning that war was outlawed. Of course, this didn’t work since there was no way to enforce the treaty. Another weakness was that the US did not join. Still, the idea was a step forward.


  1. Mussolini: Italy’s failure to secure territory at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference led to the rise of Fascism, a political movement emphasizing loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader. Social unrest caused by inflation and unemployment led people to lose faith in the democratic government. As a result, Italians looked to a strong leader to revive the economy and rebuild its armed forces. Benito Mussolini was an Italian newspaper editor and politician who had founded the Fascist Party in 1919. He publicly criticized the government and played on the fear of a workers’ revolt to gain support from industrial leaders, the aristocracy, and the middle class. Mussolini seized power in October 1922, when 30,000 Fascists stormed Rome, forcing King Victor Emmanuel III to abdicate and name Mussolini “Il Duce”. Mussolini abolished democracy and proclaimed Fascism the sole political party. He used propaganda, police brutality, censorship, and indoctrination to control Italy socially and to maintain support of the people. Economically, functions were controlled by the state and Mussolini sought to do so by allying with the Fascists with large landowners and industrialists.


  1. How Mussolini Seized Power: Italy’s failure to secure territory at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference led to the rise of Fascism, a political movement emphasizing loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader. Social unrest caused by inflation and unemployment led people to lose faith in the democratic government. As a result, Italians looked to a strong leader to revive the economy and rebuild its armed forces. Benito Mussolini was an Italian newspaper editor and politician who had founded the Fascist Party in 1919. He publicly criticized the government and played on the fear of a workers’ revolt to gain support from industrial leaders, the aristocracy, and the middle class. Mussolini seized power in October 1922, when 30,000 Fascists stormed Rome, forcing King Victor Emmanuel III to abdicate and name Mussolini “Il Duce”.


  1. Mussolini’s Economic and Social Power: Mussolini abolished democracy and proclaimed Fascism the sole political party. He used propaganda, police brutality, censorship, and indoctrination to control Italy socially and to maintain support of the people. Economically, functions were controlled by the state and Mussolini sought to do so by allying with the Fascists with large landowners and industrialists.


  1. Totalitarian Rule: Totalitarianism is a political system in which the government has total control over all aspects of life, both public and private. Known as dynamic leaders, dictatorships or ruling political parties convince the people to follow them by promising security and direction. All citizens are expected to approve, and it works to erase the line between society and the government. Citizens are denied basic liberties and the state expects personal sacrifice for its benefit. Tools that leaders use to ensure loyalty of the people and end opposition include mass communication such as propaganda and military weapons, surveillance, and violence. Extreme measures of enforcement include police terror, indoctrination, censorship, and even persecution. These actions are justified by the government, as they are made in the “best interest” of the state.

 

  1. Examples of totalitarianism leaders in the 20th century include Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, Kim IL Sung, and Hussein: Adolf Hitler was the German totalitarian leader from 1922 to 1945. Benito Mussolini ruled Italy from 1925 to 1943 and Joseph Stalin dictated the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1953. North Korean Kim IL Sung ruled from 1948 to 1994, and Saddam Hussein controlled Iraq from 1979 to 2003.


  1. Francisco Franco: In 1931, Spain changed from a monarchy to a republic run by liberals and Socialists. In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War began when Fascists joined General Fransisco Franco in a revolt. Hitler and Mussolini sent supplies to help Franco’s Nationalists. Supporters of Spain’s elected government, the Republicans, received little help. Western democracies stayed neutral but the USSR sent help and volunteers joined the fight. In 1939, the Republicans collapsed and Francisco became Spain’s Fascist dictator.


  1. The Third Reich: The regime in Germany from 1933 to 1945 became known as the Third Reich. It is also known as Nazi Germany and was the period where Adolf Hitler gained control and established a dictatorship.


  1. Authoritarian Rule in Eastern Europe: Many countries put an end to authoritarian governments, monarchies, and dynasties, and instead tried democracy. France, England, and the US were able to preserve their democracies, but countries like Italy, Germany, and Russia turned to authoritarian leaders.


  1. II Duce: Italy’s failure to secure territory at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference led to the rise of Fascism, a political movement emphasizing loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader. Social unrest caused by inflation and unemployment led people to lose faith in the democratic government. As a result, Italians looked to a strong leader to revive the economy and rebuild its armed forces. Benito Mussolini was an Italian newspaper editor and politician who had founded the Fascist Party in 1919. He publicly criticized the government and played on the fear of a workers’ revolt to gain support from industrial leaders, the aristocracy, and the middle class. Mussolini seized power in October 1922, when 30,000 Fascists stormed Rome, forcing King Victor Emmanuel III to abdicate and name Mussolini “Il Duce” (The Leader). Mussolini abolished democracy and proclaimed Fascism the sole political party. He used propaganda, police brutality, censorship, and indoctrination to control Italy socially and to maintain support of the people. Economically, functions were controlled by the state and Mussolini sought to do so by allying with the Fascists with large landowners and industrialists.


  1. Rome-Berlin Axis:The Rome-Berlin Axis was the coalition formed between Italy and Germany on October 25, 1936. It was arranged by Galleazzo Ciano, Italy’s foreign prime minister and joined the two fascist countries led by Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler.


  1. Black Shirts: The Black Shirts were the Italian Fascist militia army led by Mussolini. Also known as the Squadristi, the Black Shirts aimed to defeat Socialists and any opposition to Fascism.


  1. Weimar Republic AND Its Struggles: Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9, 1918. He was the last German Emperor, and the Weimar Republic took his place. It was the system of government until 1933, when Nazi Germany gained power. Many Germans disliked the Weimar Republic for signing the Treaty of Versailles, even though it was forced by the Allied Powers. The Republic also faced hyperinflation, political extremism, and contentious relationships with the victors of WW1. It also lacked democratic tradition.


  1. Inflation: Unable to pay off 32 billion dollars in reparations, Germany started to print money. This inflation decreased the value of the mark so much that the currency was basically worthless. During the Great Depression, the rate of inflation was negative (deflation), leading to the collapse in investment.


  1. Stock Market Crash: The stock market crashed on October 29, 1929. Soaring prices for stocks meant that people began buying stocks on margin. Margin buying meant that people paid a small percent of a stock’s price as a down payment, and then borrowed the rest from a stockbroker. So long as the prices were rising, this system worked. However, investors have no money to pay off the loan should the prices fall. In 1929, stock prices were unnaturally high, and investors began selling the stocks, believing the prices would decrease. However, the prices plummeted, and everyone wanted to sell stocks while no one wanted to buy.

  

  1. The Great Depression: The Great Depression was the worst economic depression and lasted from 1929 to 1939. Flaws in the US economy that led to it was the unequal distribution of wealth, overproduction, underconsumption, buying stock on margin, laying off workers, selling stocks with no buyers, and speculation. These led to the stock market crash which was the catalyst for the Great Depression. As a result, millions became unemployed, the country faced bankruptcy, governments were forced to take emergency actions, people lost faith in capitalism and democracy, and nations turned to totalitarianism leaders. Longterm effects included Nazi control, fascism, Japan expanding, welfare programs, and eventually even WW2. 


  1. Margin Buying: The stock market crashed on October 29, 1929. Soaring prices for stocks meant that people began buying stocks on margin. Margin buying meant that people paid a small percent of a stock’s price as a down payment, and then borrowed the rest from a stockbroker. So long as the prices were rising, this system worked. However, investors have no money to pay off the loan should the prices fall.


  1. Weak Spots in American Economy:Flaws in the US economy that led to it was the unequal distribution of wealth, overproduction, underconsumption, buying stock on margin, laying off workers, selling stocks with no buyers, and speculation. These led to the stock market crash which was the catalyst for the Great Depression. As a result, millions became unemployed, the country faced bankruptcy, governments were forced to take emergency actions, people lost faith in capitalism and democracy, and nations turned to totalitarianism leaders. Longterm effects included Nazi control, fascism, Japan expanding, welfare programs, and eventually even WW2. 


  1. Global Impact of the Stock Crash: High tariffs were placed on imported goods, and countries depending on exporting goods to the US suffered. Other nations began to raise tariffs and world trade dropped by 65%, furthering the economic downfall and increasing unemployment rates.


  1. Post War Problems in England: Post war, England suffered a 25% unemployment rate. 50% of their merchant ships were lost in war, and high tariffs were imposed. They became complacent with industrialization and therefore fell behind in technology. They also were forced to borrow millions of dollars from the US and did not receive financial help from Germany who was unable to pay reparations. Still they remained a stable democracy. 


  1. Issues in Spain/Francisco Franco: In 1931, Spain changed from a monarchy to a republic run by liberals and Socialists. In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War began when Fascists joined General Fransisco Franco in a revolt. Hitler and Mussolini sent supplies to help Franco’s Nationalists. Supporters of Spain’s elected government, the Republicans, received little help. Western democracies stayed neutral but the USSR sent help and volunteers joined the fight. In 1939, the Republicans collapsed and Francisco became Spain’s Fascist dictator.


  1. Rearmament: Rearmament is the process of equipping military forces with a new supply of weapons. It occured in both Britain and Germany, and helped create new jobs for the unemployed.


  1. How France Recovered from WWI: France had a self-sufficient economy and was heavily agricultural. Still, 1 million French were unemployed and the economic crisis led to political instability. Five coalitions began and failed in 1933. Finally in 1936, Socialists, moderates, and Communists formed the Popular Front Coalition that passed reforms to help workers. Though not very effective, France was able to preserve its democratic government.


  1. A Coalition Government: A Coalition Government is a temporary alliance of different political parties. These were formed since no single party could win a parliamentary majority. Since parties disagreed on policies, coalitions never lasted long. These frequent changes in the government made it difficult for democratic countries to build strong leadership and work towards long term goals.

  2. The Maginot Line:  The Maginot line was a physical wall built by the French along the German border to protect against invasions. However, it failed as modern war technology made it easy to simply go over or around it.


  1. The USA’s Post War Policy: The US practiced isolationism and stayed out of foreign affairs. 


  1. The Non-Aggression Pact: This pact was signed by Germany and Russia, and was the agreement to not fight for 10 years so that Poland could be split. This also allowed Stalin to build a military and for Hitler to avoid a two front war. The agreement was broken after only two years, when hitler invaded Russia.


  1. The New Deal: Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated the New Deal, a program in which public work projects created jobs for the unemployed. FInancial aid was distributed, and welfare. Relief programs opened. It was the first time that people began to depend on the government. Eventually, the New Deal reformed the economic system and restored faith in democracy.


  1. Tariffs: Tariffs are taxes on imports. During the Great Depression, high tariffs were placed on imports so that US dollars would remain in the country to be used on American goods. This plan failed as countries depending on the exportation of goods to the US suffered and were forced to also impose high tariffs in their own countries.