AP Euro: Unit 6 - The Scientific Revolution (1500-1700, 16th-18th century)

The Astronomical Revolution and Isaac Newton

• accepted model:
  • for thousands of years, people had an established view of the universe based on the philosophies of Aristotle and Ptolemy
    • this model was support by the Catholic Church
  • in this model, the earth (humans) is at the center of the universe and everything else revolves around it (geocentric model) (earth in the middle: Aristotle)
  • also, planets revolve around the earth in a complex manner not simple circles (Ptolemy)
• Nicolaus Copernicus:
  • Polish astronomer (Poland was largely Roman Catholic) who hypothesized Earth was not the center of the universe but revolved around the sun like everything else (heliocentric model)
    • also hypothesized that earth rotates on an axis (in addition to orbit)
  • countered the use of classical authorities to support traditional views of the natural world
  • couldn't prove theory because he was limited by the technology of his time but his view would inspire later astronomers to challenge accepted beliefs
• Brahe and Kepler:
  • worked together to advance Copernicus' theory of universe 
  • from Denmark which was not strictly Catholic; their work was funded
  • found Copernicus' work to be true through observation
  • Brahe:
    • charted positions of 100s of stars
  • Kepler:
    • developed 3 laws of planetary motion:
      • planets orbit the sun in ellipses
      • orbital speed varies: closer to sun = faster orbit
      • planets orbit slower the more distant they are from the sun
• Galileo:
  • Italian astronomer (Italy was strictly Roman Catholic)
  • upgraded telescope (studied sky in grater detail)
  • discovered sunspots and moons orbiting Jupiter (which proved Copernicus' theory)
  • put on trial by the church for his beliefs and was forced to recant his beliefs under the penalty of death and was placed on house arrest for the rest of his life
• Sir Isaac Newton:
  • born in England (not strictly Roman Catholic)
  • went to Cambridge University but had breakthroughs at home because his school was closed due to plague
  • invented calculus (math that calculated rates of change)
  • demonstrated color spectrum through prism
  • discovered/made laws that govern motion
  • discovered gravity
  • laws of motion:
    • objects at rest stays at rest or objects in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by an unbalanced force (law of inertia)
    • force = mass x acceleration
    • for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
• Newtonian World Machine:
  • Newton's idea that the world operated absolutely in time, space, and motion (basically God created the world but doesn't run it)
  • based off the fact that God created immutable laws that governed the running of the world and everything in the world had to obey those laws
  • the World Machine as a view would dominate the Western worldview of space and time until the 20th century and would support his laws of gravity and motion

Later Scientists of the Scientific Revolution

• teachings of Galen:
  • like other early physicians, the works of Galen were influenced by philosophy not science
  • instead of dissecting people, he dissected animals (different anatomy) which led to false conclusions/understanding of how the human body worked
  • believed there were 2 systems of blood (one for arteries and one for digestion) and circulation originated from the liver
  • believed the body was made up of 4 humors (blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm) and diseases are caused by an imbalance of the humors
    • this means the remedy would be to balance them out (bleeding, burning, elixirs to make people use the restroom, etc.)
• Paracelsus
  • scientist who rejected work of Galen and Aristotle, and argued that universities taught incorrect/outdated info
  • actually cured people
  • argued disease was caused by chemical imbalances and could be treated with chemical remedies
  • also argued that dosage played part in remedies' effectiveness
  • developed idea of using a disease-causing factor in proper amounts as a way to cure the disease (vaccine)
  • had bad reputation so his ideas were accepted when he died
• Andreas Vesalius:
  • studied medical science (practical research) to understand human anatomy
  • studied, carefully illustrated, and dissected human cadavers to fix errors of earlier physicians
  • provided most anatomically accurate illustrations of the human body of that time (Renaissance art and printing helped further spread research)
• William Harvey:
  • discovered that the heart was the origin of blood circulation not the liver and the same blood flowed in veins and arteries
  • wrote Motion of the Heart and Blood which overturned Galen's incorrect hypotheses 
  • his study would help lead to the discovery of blood types
  • used people convicted of murder to test theories; dissected people alive
• Margaret Cavendish:
  • lived in a "man's world"
  • had no formal education but from aristocratic family which allowed her to participate in scientific debates
  • attacked outdated practices/philosophies and argued people would never become 'masters of nature' (false)
• Maria Meria:
  • entomologist
  • illustrated 100s of plants and animals around the world
  • published Metamorphosis of Insects of Surinam with 60 detailed illustrations of mating, reproduction, and developmental cycles of insects in Suriname
• Maria Winkelmann:
  • educated by father and uncle
  • trained with self-taught astronomer, and married Germany's foremost astronomer and became his assistant
  • discovered a comet, was a very qualified astronomer
  • when her husband died, she applied to be a professor but was denied because she was a woman
• Rene Descartes:
  • served in 30 Years' War and began to doubt everything but existence
  • developed idea of separation of mind and body:
    • Cartesian Dualism - the mind is the best for interpreting philosophy and reason, and mathematics is the best tool to interact with the physical world
  • Cartesian Dualism allowed scientists to see matter as inert and separate from themselves
  • father of rationalism (allowing knowledge and reason to influence decision-making, not giving in to religious beliefs or emotional responses)
• Francis Bacon:
  • unlike philosophers, he argued to NOT begin with logical conclusions and instead...
    • form hypothesis --> organize experiment to test assumption --> observe data --> form new hypotheses
  • more interested in practical results but new way to carry out scientific inquiry resulted in refinement of the way we come to accept new information
  • Descartes argued one could start with self-evident truths (like math) and deduce more complex conclusions
  • Newton combined both Descartes and Bacon's theories to create empiricism (present day scientific method) (trust what you can see, sense, and demonstrate)
• Benedict de Spinoza:
  • wanted to keep God and science together
  • believed God was in everything, and humans and everything else was part of God's natural order
  • believed humans can be analyzed like other observable things, worshipping God = existence, and everything is rational (using reason = true happiness)
• Blaise Pascal:
  • invented calculator and mathematical theorems
  • devoted life to uniting Christianity and science
  • believed humans were weak and God/Christianity shouldn't be judged for human actions/'misjudgments' (reason) 
• Denis Diderot:
  • philosopher, art critic, writer
  • wanted a way to access all knowledge easily --> cofounder, chief editor, and contributor to the 1st encyclopedia
  • from Paris
  • believed knowledge should be shared, collected, and presented in a easy-to-access and understandable way