Exam #1

anatomy

the structure of an organism

applied anatomy

also known as clinical anatomy; application of anatomical study; treatment & diagnosis of a disease

descriptive anatomy

description of individual body parts; no reference to disease

pathological anatomy

changes in structures & how they relate to different types of diseases

physiology

the study of the function of the living organism and its parts, as well as the chemical processes involved

midsaggital plane

cuts the body in right and left halves

transverse planes

cuts upper and lower halves of the body

frontal plane (coronal)

results in front and back portions of the body

anterior (ventral)

front surface of the body

posterior (dorsal)

toward the back

rostral

towards the head

epithelial tissue

superficial (outer) layer of mucous membranes and the cells making up the skin (surface covering of body and linings of cavities/passageways); provides a barrier, like skin

connective tissue

composed of intercellular material, known as the matrix, to which the cells are bound, can be solid, liquid, gel-like; supports and protects

muscular tissue

contractile tissue; capable of being stimulated to contract; consists of voluntary (striated), involuntary (smooth), and cardiac muscle

nervous tissue

highly specialized communicative tissue; consists of neurons that take on a variety of forms; transmits info between neurons, sensory receptors

tissue aggregates

conjunction/collection of different tissues into a mass

fascia

sheet-like membrane surrounding organs

ligaments

bind organs together or holds bones to bones or cartilage

tendons

attach muscle to bone or cartilage

bones

along with cartilage provide the structure for the body, articulating by means of joints

joints

the union of bones with other bones, or cartilage with other cartilage

axial skeleton

the part of the skeleton that includes the skull and spinal column and sternum and ribs - 80 bones

appendicular skeleton

the part of the skeleton that includes the pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle and the upper and lower limbs - 126 bones

origin

point of attachment; least amount of movement

insertion

point of attachment; moves as a result of muscle contraction

striated muscles

also known as skeletal muscle because it is the muscle used to move skeletal structures; voluntary/conscious control

smooth muscles

muscular tissue of the digestive tract and blood vessels, involuntary control

cardiac muscles

composed of cells that connect in a net-like fashion

agonists

muscles that move a structure

antagonists

muscles that oppose movement

synergists

muscles that stabilize structures

respiratory system

breathing for speech

phonatory system

production of voiced sounds

articulatory/resonatory system

used to alter the characteristics of the sounds fo speech

nervous system

related to the central nervous system's control of speech process

respiration

the exchange of gas between organism and its environment; requires muscular effort; goal is oxygenation of blood and elimination of carbon dioxide

respiratory system functions

- supplies the body with oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide - filters the air we breathe in - assists in producing sound - contains receptors for smell - rids the body of some excess water and heat - helps regulate blood pH

Boyle's Law

all forces in nature seek balance and equilibrium - forms the basis for movement of air into and out of the lungs - if you decrease the volume the air pressure will increase

vertebral column

33 segments of bone with a rich set of fossa & protuberances designed for function; supports ribs, houses spinal column, helps with movements

cervical vertebrae

C1-C7

superior articular facet

aids some movement; connects vertebrae together

spinous process

attachment for muscles

vertebral foramen

opening for spinal cord

corpus (CV)

body

transverse process

attachment for muscles

C1

atlas

C2

axis

7 true ribs

direct attachment to the sternum

3 false ribs

indirectly attach to the sternum

2 floating ribs

do not attach to the sternum

Ribs

elevate during inspiration

Sternum

3 components: - manubrium - corpus - xiphoid process

Manubrium

attachment for clavicle & 1st rib

Corpus (S)

attachment for 5 more ribs

Xipohoid process

anterior most attachment of diaphragm

respiratory mucosa

a layer of cells that secrete mucus; found in nose, sinuses, pharynx, larynx & trachea, can trap contaminants

Nose

- provides an airway for respiration, moistens and warms entering air, filters and cleans inspired air, resonating chamber for speech, detects odors in the air stream - internal nares, external nares, nasal conchae

Internal nares

opening to exterior

external nares

opening to pharynx

nasal conchae

folds in the mucous membrane that increase air turbulence and ensures that most air contacts the mucous membranes

pharynx

- common space used by both the respiratory and digestive systems - originates posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and extends inferiorly near the level of the bifurcation of the larynx and esophagus - common pathway for both air and food - force swallowed food into the esophagus - nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx

lower respiratory tract

- conducting airways - respiratory portion of the respiratory system

conducting airways

- trachea - bronchi - up to terminal bronchioles

respiratory portion of the respiratory system

- respiratory bronchioles - alveolar ducts - alveoli

trachea

flexible tube; 11 cm; 15-20 c-shaped tracheal cartilages; starts @ end of larynx; becomes left & right bronchi @ carina; lined by cilia

larynx

"voice box," prevents swallowed materials from entering the lower respiratory tract (reflexive cough); conducts air into the lower respiratory tract; produces sounds; 9 pieces of cartilage

sound production

- inferior ligaments = true vocal folds - superior ligaments = vestibular folds/false vocal folds

bronchial tree

- a highly branched system of air-conducting passages that originate from the left and right primary bronchi - terminate in terminal bronchioles - foreign bronchioles are more likely to lodge in the primary bronchus

alveoli

small air sacs; each lung contains approx. 300-400 million

gas exchange

can take place in the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts

lungs

- apex - projects superiorly to a point that is slightly superior and posterior to the clavicle, top portion - base rests upon the muscular diaphragm

left lung

- divided into 2 lobes by oblique fissure - smaller than right lung (to fit in cardiac region) - cardiac notch accommodates the heart

right lung

- divided into 3 lobes by oblique and horizontal fissure - located more superiorly in the body due to liver on the right side

pleura

the outer surface of each lung and the adjacent internal thoracic wall are lined with this serous membrane

visceral pleura

the outer surface of each lung is tightly covered by this

pleural cavity

the potential space between the serous membrane layers

pleural effusion

occurs when fluid that accumulates between the two pleural layers; this can impair breathing by limiting the expansion of the lungs

pneumothorax

abnormal collection of air or gas in the pleural space that separates the lung from the chest wall; may interfere with normal breathing

quiet inspiration

needs only one muscle - elastic recoil: after muscles are stretched they recoil to their pre-stretched position

forced inspiration

calls on many more muscles

diaphragm

primary muscle of inspiration - divides the thoracic from the abdominal cavity - increases the vertical dimension of the thorax and provides for inhalation - muscles radiate out from central tendon

external intercostals

- raise the ribs - significant for speech

parasternal portion of internal intercostals

helps elevate and slightly rotate ribs when expands

levator costarum

elevates ribs

serratus posterior superior

elevates ribs 2-5; upper ribcage of rib cage

sternocleidomastoid

- elevation of chin - helps elevate sternum and anterior portion of rib cage

scalenes (anterior, middle, posterior)

- stabilizes head; facilitates rotation - elevate first and second ribs

checking action

requires the recruiting of the intra-abdominal muscles which allows you to control the release of air and release it little by little

transverse abdominus

acts as antagonist to diaphragm

external oblique

lowers ribs; antagonist to diaphragm

internal oblique

lowers ribs

rectus abdominus

lowers ribs; powerful vertical muscle

quadratus lumborum

draws 12th ribs downwards

passive expiration

we let the forces inherent to the tissues restore the system to a resting position after inspiration (driven by forces of elasticity and gravity); natural restorative processes

active expiration

we use muscular effort to push the air out of the lungs; involvement of the muscles

elasticity

- 1/2 active forces in passive expiration - lungs are highly elastic, porous, sponge-like tissue - tend to expand as soon as compression is released, volume increases

gravity

- when standing/sitting upright, gravity acts on ribs to pull them back after they expanded - also works to maximize overall capacity by pulling abdominal viscera down, leaving more room for lungs

gas exchange

1) ventilation 2) distribution 3) perfusion 4) diffusion

ventilation

actual movement of air in the conducting respiratory pathway

distribution

air is distributed to the alveoli

perfusion

oxygen is supplied to the capillaries that supply the alveoli

diffusion

the actual gas exchange across the alveolar capillary membrane

volumes

the amount of air the lungs can hold; measured amount

capacities

refers to volumes that express psychological limits; represent a functional combination of volumes (a # of volumes combined together)

tidal volume (TV)

volume of air exchanged within one cycle of respiration; normal inspiration and expiration when breathing quietly

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

volume of air that can be inhaled after a tidal inspiration

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

volume of air that can be expired following passive, tidal expiration (aka resting lung volume); extra air after tidal expiration

residual volume (RV)

volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation; air cannot be exhaled no matter what

total lung capacity (TLC)

sum of all the volumes (TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV)

vital capacity (VC)

total volume of air that can be inhaled following a maximal exhalation (VC = IRV + TV + ERV)

functional residual capacity (FRC)

volume of air in the lungs at the end of passive exhalation (FRC = ERV + RV)

inspiratory capacity (IC)

maximum inspiratory volume possible after tidal expiration (IC = TV + IRV)

pressures of the respiratory system

- intraoral pressure - subglottal pressure - alveolar pressure - intrapleural pressure - atmospheric pressure

intraoral pressure

pressure within the oral cavity

subglottal pressure

pressure beneath the vocal folds

alveolar pressure

pressure in the alveoli

intrapleural pressure

pressure between lung pleura

atmospheric pressure

pressure in surrounding environment

vegetative respiratory cycle

inhalation (through nose); about 40% of cycle: exhalation (usually passive) is 60% followed by prolonged latency before next cycle; controlled by the autonomic nervous system

speech breathing

inhalation (through mouth); about 10% of cycle; controlled exhalation (an active process) is 90% with no latency between cycles; uses checking action to control the exhalation; controlled by the cortical function

phonation

also known as voicing, the product of vibrating vocal folds and occurs within the larynx

cricoid cartilage

complete ring resting atop the trachea; most inferior of laryngeal cartilages

thyroid cartilage

largest of cartilages; articulates with cricoid below by means of paired processes that let it rock forward and backward at the joint

arytenoid cartilage

paired, ride on the high-backed upper surface of cricoid, forming posterior point of attachment for VFs

corniculate cartilages

ride on superior surface of each arytenoid and are prominent landmarks in the aryepiglottic folds

cuneiform cartilages

reside within the aryepiglottic folds, provides a degree of rigidity to the folds

epiglottis

leaf-like structure, protective structure that drops to cover larynx during swallow

vocal process

where posterior portion of VFs attach

muscular process

point of attachment for muscles that adduct/abduct the VFs

hyoid bone

forms the union between the tongue and the laryngeal structure; corpus, greater cornu, lesser cornu

extrinsic ligaments

provide attachment between hyoid bone or trachea and cartilages of the larynx - one attachment on laryngeal cartilages; one on a nonlaryngeal structure - major adjustments to larynx - work in concert w/ the articulatory motions of the tongue and many are important in swallowing

intrinsic ligaments

connect the cartilages of the larynx and form the support structure for the cavity of the larynx, as well as that of the vocal folds - origin and insertion on the laryngeal cartilages - makes fine adjustments to the vocal mechanism - opening, closing, tensing, & relaxing VFs

fine structures of vocal folds

- squamous epithelium - superficial lamina propria (SLP) - intermediate lamina propria - deep lamina propria - thyroarytenoid muscle

aditus

entry to the larynx from the pharynx

vestibule

first cavity of the larynx; space between the aditus and the ventricular folds

aryepiglottic folds

comprise the lateral walls of the larynx

laryngeal ventricle

middle space of the larynx that lies between the false and true VFs

glottis

space between the VFs

adductors

- lateral cricoarytenoid - transverse arytenoid - oblique arytenoid

abductors

- posterior cricoarytenoid muscle

glottal tensors

- cricothyroid muscle - thyrovocalis muscle

relaxers

thyromuscularis

auxiliary muscles

- thyroepiglotticus - superior thyroarytenoid

cricothyroid joint

change in pitch

articulatory system

system of mobile and immobile articulators brought into contact for the purpose of shaping the sounds of speech

mobile articulators

tongue, lips, pharynx, mandible, and velum

immobile articulators

teeth, hard palate, and alveolar ridge

mandible

makes up lower jaw of the face

coronoid process

head articulates with the skull; permits rotation of the mandible

mental symphysis

point of fusion of the two halves

corpus (M)

forms the angle we call the "jaw-line"

mental foramen

hole in which the trigeminal nerve (CNV) passes

mandibular foramen

attachment for the alveolar nerve of trigeminal nerve (CNV); provides sensory innervation for the teeth and gums

maxillae

makes up the upper jaw of the face; creates the roof of the mouth, nose, and upper dental ridge

orbital process

supports your eyes

anterior nasal spine and nasal crest

seen at midline where nose separates into nostrils

alveolar process

important for holding teeth in an adult maxilla

nasal bones

make up the bridge of your nose

inferior nasal conchae

small scroll-like bones located on the lateral surface of the nasal cavity; articulate with the maxilla, palatine, and ethmoid bones

middle and superior nasal conchae

located above the inferior nasal conchae

vomer

an unpaired bone which runs midline to create the inferior and posterior portions of the nasal septum (divides the 2 nasal cavities)

zygomatic bone

makes up the cheekbones

maxillary process

articulates with the maxilla

temporal process

articulates with the zygomatic bone and the temporal bone

frontal process

forms the articulation with the sphenoid bones

obicularis oris muscle

important in both facial expression in speech; kiss requires activation of this muscle

risorius muscle

functions to retract the corners of the mouth along with the buccinator muscle

buccinator muscle

aka bugler's muscle; lies deep to the risorius muscle and follows a parallel course; inserting into the upper and lower obicularis oris

levator labii superioris

this muscle originates from the infraorbital margin of the maxilla, coursing down and into the upper lip

zygomatic minor

begins its downward course from the facial surface of the zygomatic bone

levator labii superioris alaeque nasi

courses nearly vertically along the sides of your nose, arising from the frontal process of the maxilla

levator anguli oris

works to draw the corner of the mouth up and medial-ward

zygomatic major

function is to elevate and retract the angle of the mouth, as in smiling

depressor labii inferioris

it originates from the mandible at the oblique line, coursing up and in to insert into the lower lip; contraction of this muscle dilates the opening of the mouth by pulling the lips down and out

depressor anguli oris

aka the triangularis; its fibers converge on the obicularis oris and upper lip at the corner; contraction of this muscle depresses the corners of the mouth and help to compress the upper lip against the lower lip, as well as help produce a frown

mentalis muscle

this muscle arises from the region of the incisive fossa of the mandible, inserting into the skin of the chin below; contraction of this muscle elevates and wrinkles the chin and pulls the lower lip out, as in pouting

platysma

mandibular depression