APLANG CH.1-3 VOCAB

audience

The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple audiences

concession

An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong argument, a concession is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument

connotation

Meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition, or denotation. Connotations are usually positive or negative, and they can greatly affect the author’s tone

context

The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text

counterargument

An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward

ethos

Greek for “character.” Speakers appeal to ethos to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy to speak on a given topic

logos

Greek for “embodied thought.” Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back them up

occasion

time and place a speech is given or a piece is written

pathos

Greek for “suffering” or “experience.” Speakers appeal to pathos to emotionally motivate their audience. More specific appeals to pathos might play on the audience’s values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other

persona

Greek for “mask.” The face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience

polemic

Greek for “hostile.” An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others. Polemics generally do not concede that opposing opinions have any merit

propaganda

The spread of ideas and information to further a cause. In its negative sense, propaganda is the use of rumors, lies, disinformation, and scare tactics in order to damage or promote a cause

purpose

The goal the speaker wants to achieve

refutation

A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. In order to sound reasonable, refutations often follow a concession that acknowledges that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable

rhetoric

As Aristotle defined the term, “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” In other words, it is the art of finding ways to persuade an audience

rhetorical appeals

Rhetorical techniques used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they find most important or compelling. The three major appeals are to ethos, logos, and pathos

rhetorical triangle (Aristotelian triangle)

A diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text

SOAPS

Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Speaker

speaker

The person or group who creates a text

subject

The topic of a text - what the text is about

text

While this term generally means the written word, in the humanities it has come to mean any cultural product that can be “read” — meaning not just consumed and comprehended, but investigated

alliteration

Repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables in sequence

allusion

Brief reference to a person, event, or place (real or fictitious) or to a work of art

anaphora

Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines

antimetabole

Repetition of words in reverse order

antithesis

Opposition, or contrast, of ideas or words in a parallel construction

archaic diction

Old-fashioned or outdated choice of words

asyndeton

Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words

cumulative sentence

Sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on

hortative sentence

Sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action

imperative sentence

Sentence used to command or enjoin

inversion

Inverted order of words in a sentence (variation of the subject-verb-object order)

juxtaposition

Placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences

metaphor

Figure of speech that compares two things without using like or as

oxymoron

Paradoxical juxtaposition of words that seem to contradict one another

parallelism

Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses

periodic sentence

Sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end

personification

Attribution of a lifelike quality to an inanimate object or an idea

rhetorical question

Figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather than for the purpose of getting an answer

synecdoche

Figure of speech that uses a part to represent the whole

zeugma

Use of two different words in a grammatically similar way that produces different, often incongruous, meanings

ad hominem

Latin for “against the man,” this fallacy refers to the specific diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker

ad populum

(bandwagon appeal) This fallacy occurs when evidence boils down to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be a good thing to do”

appeal to false authority

occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority

argument

A process of reasoned inquiry; a persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion

begging the question

fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt. It “begs” a question whether the support itself is sound

circular reasoning

A fallacy in which the writer repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence

claim

Also called an assertion or a proposition, a claim states the argument’s main idea or position

claim of fact

asserts that something is true or not true

claim of policy

proposes a change

claim of value

A claim of value argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong

classical oration

Five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians. The five parts are: introduction, narration, confirmation, refutation, conclusion

introduction (exordium)

Introduces the reader to the subject under discussion

narration (narratio)

Provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing

confirmation (confirmatio)

Usually the major part of the text, the confirmation includes the proof needed to make the writer’s case

refutation (refutatio)

Addresses the counterargument. It is a bridge between the writer’s proof and conclusion

conclusion (peroratio)

Brings the essay to a satisfying close

closed thesis

a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make

deduction

a logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise) The process of deduction is usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism: major premise: Exercise contributes to better health. minor premise: Yoga is a type of exercise. conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.

either/or (false dilemma)

A fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices

faulty analogy

A fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable

first-hand evidence

Evidence based on something the writer knows, whether it’s from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events

hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence

induction

From the Latin inducere, “to lead into”; a logical process whereby the writer reasons from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization Exercise promotes weight loss. Exercise lowers stress levels. Exercise improves mood and outlook. generalization: Exercise contributes to better health.

logical fallacy

Potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it

open thesis

a thesis that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay

post hoc ergo propter hoc

This fallacy is Latin for “after which therefore because of which,” meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. "Correlation does not mean causation"

qualifier

uses words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely to temper the claim, making it less absolute

quantitative evidence

Quantitative evidence includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers — for instance, statistics, surveys, polls, census information

rebuttal

a rebuttal gives voice to possible objections

reservation

explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier

Rogerian arguments

Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating

second-hand evidence

Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. Includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data

straw man

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea

syllogism

A logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion major premise: Exercise contributes to better health. minor premise: Yoga is a type of exercise. conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.

Toulmin model

An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin in his book The Uses of Argument (1958). The Toulmin model can be stated as a template: Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation)

assumption/warrant

the warrant expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience