Tags & Description
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Physiological effect
The effect a sensation has on the body
proximal stimulus
In perception, it is the information our sensory receptors receive about the object.
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Interpretation
The brain guessing what kind of distal stimulation created that pattern of sensory (proximal) stimulation
distal stimulus
In perception, it is the actual object or event out there in the world, as opposed to its perceived image.
nervous system
the network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.
Neuron
a nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system
Neuron cell body
location of the nucleus with DNA
Dendrites
Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.
Axons
a part of a neuron that carries impulses away from the cell body
axon terminal
The endpoint of a neuron where neurotransmitters are stored
Diameter of an axon
Determines communication speed in both vertebrates and invertebrates
Myelin
A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons in vertebrates, enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
Nodes of Ranvier
gaps in the myelin sheath
Schwann cells
Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
Lack of myelin
Significantly impairs motor and cognitive function (eg. Multiple sclerosis)
Babies and myelin
People lack myelin on birth, it develops as we get older. Babies gain control of their bodies starting from the top and the core
Ions
positively and negatively charged atoms
Electricity
A form of energy caused by the movement of ions
Intracellular fluid
Fluid within cells: Lots of negative ions (amino acids), few positive ions (K+), creates negative charge
Extracellular fluid
fluid outside the cell: Mostly positive ions (Na+), overall positive charge
Voltmeter
A device used to measure voltage, or electrical potential energy difference
oscilloscope trace
A trace showing the change in electrical potential across the membrane of an axon at each stage of an action potential.
Resting potential
-70 mV, the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse
Axon membrane
has chemical gates that can open to allow electrically charged particles to enter or can close to keep out electrically charged particles
Action Potential (AP)
an electrical impulse changing the permeability of a membrane
depolarization phase
Na+ rush into axon, increasing charge from -70 to +40 very briefly
Hyperpolarization phase
-"Gates" close to Na+ and open to K+ -K+ rushes out of axon -Loss of positive ions causes charge to become negative, below -70
recovery phase
Sodium-potassium pump
Na+ leaves axon, K+ drawn back in
Charge returns to -70
Refractory period
the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated
Action potential in unmyelinated axons
Ion exchange occurs at every point of the axon, one at a time (slower)
Action potential in myelinated axons
In myelinated axons, it creates saltatory conduction. Ion exchange occurs at Nodes of Ranvier, between bubbles of myelin, and then skips to the next node (faster)
Rate of spontaneous activity
Base rate of action potentials produced per second without stimulation in living beings
Transferring information between neurons
Electrical charge travels down axon to axon terminal
Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into synaptic gap
Neurotransmitters are picked up by dendrites of receiver neuron
synaptic vesicles
Membrane-bounded compartments in which synthesized neurotransmitters are kept.
Excitatory neurotransmitters
chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that excite the next neuron into firing
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that inhibit the next neuron from firing
Neuron notation
O
Axon notation
--------------
excitatory neurotransmitter notation
<
inhibitory neurotransmitter notation
|
linear circuit
Signal generated by each receptor travels straight to the next neuron, and no other neurons are involved.
converging circuit
postsynaptic neuron receives nerve impulses from several different sources
Imaging studies
Measures average activities in thousands of neurons
Psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
Fechner
father of psychophysics
Absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
high threshold
low sensitivity to stimulus (more stimulation needed for the observer to detect it)
low threshold
high sensitivity to stimulus (less stimulation needed for the observer to detect it)
Method of limits
A psychophysical method in which the particular dimension of a stimulus, or the difference between two stimuli, is varied incrementally until the participant responds differently.
Crossover point
the point at which a person changes from detecting to not detecting a stimulus or vice versa
method of adjustment
a psychophysical method in which the experimenter or the observer adjusts the stimulus intensity in a continuous manner until the observer detects the stimulus
method of constants
A psychophysical method in which a number of stimuli with different intensities are presented repeatedly in a random order for 100 trials
Difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
Pelli-Robinson contrast sensitivity chart
Lower contrast as the chart descends, measuring the lowest ability to discriminate the letters
Weber's law
the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity (K = JND/Standard)
Signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
Response criteria
how motivated we are to detect certain stimuli and what we expect to perceive
liberal response bias
high hit rate, high false alarm rate
will readily report that the signal is present in ambiguous situations. These participants typically produce more hits and false alarms
conservative response bias
respond "no" more than "yes"
more misses and correct rejections
Higher standard needed to claim they sensed the stimulus
sensory sensitivity
the extent to which a person registers sensory information. Measured by the difference of hits and false alarms
ROC curve
used to graphically summarize a subject's responses in a signal detection experiment. Points are plotted by trials in which participants are given incentives to respond more conservatively or liberally
Magnitude response compression
Perceived magnitude rises slower than physical intensity
Magnitude response expansion
Perceived magnitude rises quicker than physical intensity
Steven's Power Law
The perceived magnitude of a stimulus is equal to its actual physical intensity raised to some constant power. The constant power is different for each type of sensory judgement.
Acetylcholine
Excitatory neurotransmitter that causes muscle contractions. Black widow venom releases mass amounts of it, causing muscle spasms. Without acetylcholine, a person can be paralyzed
Curare
Blocks uptake of acetylcholine and causes paralysis. Used in stun darts
Glutamate
Common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
GABA
Inhibitory neurotransmitter. Sleeping pills increase the receptor’s access to GABA
Light
a form of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the eye
Newton's view on light
Light is particles, called photons
Maxwell's view on light
Light is a wave created in the electromagnetic continuum
Amplitude of light
determines brightness
Wavelength of light
determines color (longer waves appear more red)
Cornea
the transparent layer forming the front of the eye.
Functions of the cornea
responsible for refraction of light entering the eyes
performs coarse focusing of light rays
Keeps fluid inside of eye
Protects eye from outside harm
Corneal disease
occurs when the cornea, the front surface of the eye, becomes clouded, scarred, or distorted by injury, disease, or hereditary defects. Creates a rainbow/halo effect around objects
corneal transplant
replacement of damaged cornea with donated tissue
Astigmatism
a condition in which the eye does not focus properly because of uneven curvatures of the cornea. Makes certain orientations of lines difficult to focus
Iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
Pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
Pupil and arousal
Pupil size can be controlled by autonomic nervous system. Adrenaline can cause pupils to dilate (eg. attraction- people find dilated pupils more attractive)
senile miosis
Normal with age Restriction of light entering the eye Decrease in resting diameter of the pupil Makes it harder to see in low light
Albinism
Absence of pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes. Eyes appear red because of reflection of blood vessels. Can create vision problems by clear irises not keeping light out
Lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Ciliary muscles
muscles which relax or contract and alter the shape of the lens. Bulge the lens for close objects and flatten for far away objects
Myopia
nearsightedness
Axial myopia
myopia in which the eyeball is too long. light rays from far objects converge in the front of the eye, making them appear out of focus
Refractive myopia
myopia (nearsightedness) in which the cornea and/or the lens bends the light too much
Hyperopia
A condition in which visual images come to a focus behind the retina of the eye and vision is better for distant than for near objects -- called also farsightedness.
axial hyperopia
eyeball is too short. light from objects focuses behind the retina
Refractive hyperopia
cornea/lens bends too little light
presbyopia
farsightedness caused by loss of elasticity of the lens of the eye, occurring typically in middle and old age.
Anomalies in colour vision with age
It gets harder to distinguish colours in the blue/green end of spectrum
Cataracts
Lens becomes milky-coloured which makes it hard to see through. Can be fixed through replacement with artificial lens