BIO 208 - Final Exam

anatomy

studying the structures of an organism

physiology

studying the functions of structures within an organism

homeostasis

the body's stable state, control mechanisms consist of a receptor, control mechanism, and effector

integumentary system

skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands; protects tissues, regulates body temperature, houses sensory receptors, synthesizes substances

skeletal system

bones, ligaments, cartilage; provides framework, protection, & an attachment point for muscles, produces blood cells and stores inorganic salts

muscular system

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle; moves body parts, maintains posture, produces body heat

nervous system

brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs; receives/interprets sensory receptor signals, causes muscles & glands to respond appropriately

endocrine system

pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, thymus; helps regulate metabolism, secrete hormones & target tissue response

cardiovascular system

heart, blood vessels; heart pumps blood to/from body parts, allows oxygen transport

lymphatic system

lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen; transports lymph from tissue space to bloodstream, carries fatty substances away from digestive organs

digestive system

mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine; receives food, breaks down nutrients so they can pass through membranes, eliminates unabsorbed materials

respiratory system

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs; takes in/releases air, exchanges gas between blood & air

urinary system

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra; filters waste from blood, helps maintain fluid/electrolyte balance

reproductive system

enables organisms to produce offspring; male: scrotum, testes, seminal vesicles, etc.; female: ovaries, uterus, vagina, etc.

negative feedback

prevents sudden, severe changes in the body & corrects the set point, causes the opposite of bodily disruption to occur (eg. body temp, blood pressure, glucose regulation)

positive feedback

increases actions of the body, is short-lived, does not require continuous adjustments (eg. blood clotting, birth)

anatomical position

standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at sides, palms facing forward, thumbs out laterally

superior

toward the head

inferior

away from the head

anterior

toward the front of the body

posterior

toward the back of the body

medial

close to the midline of the bodyl

lateral

away from the midline of the body

proximal

nearer to the point of attachment of a limb

distal

away from the point of attachment of a limb

superficial

close to the surface of the skin

deep

away from the surface of the skin

internal

within the body

external

outside of the body

ipsilateral

occuring on the same side of the body

contralateral

occurring on opposite sides of the body

sagittal plane

plane that divides the body into left & right portions

midsagittal plane

divides the body into equal left & right portions

transverse plane

divides the body into superior & inferior portions

frontal plane

divides the body into anterior & posterior portions

cell theory

- all living organisms are composed of one or more cells - cells are the smallest unit of life - cells can only come from pre-existing cells via cell division

cytoskeleton

inner scaffolding of cell, gives animal cells shape & support

nucleus

the genetic control center of the cell, stores hereditary information

chromatin

contains the genetic material of the cell and becomes a chromosome

nucleolus

where ribosomes are made, is inside the nucleus, is bigger in cells with active gene transcription

mitochondria

the energy converters of the cell

endosymbiosis

mitochondria may have existed as separate single celled bacteria-esque organisms billions of years ago

lysosomes

the "garbage disposals" of the cells; round, membrane-enclosed, acid-filled vesicles that function as waste removal functions of the cells

ribosomes

small clusters within the cell that translate genetic messages in protein synthesis

rough ER

endoplasmic reticulum that modifies proteins to be shipped elsewhere in the organism

smooth ER

endoplasmic reticulum that synthesizes lipids and detoxifies molecules like alcohol, drugs, and metabolic waste

golgi bodies

the "mailroom" of the cell, receive proteins & package them, distribute them to other parts of the cell & release them outside of the cell

peroxisomes

function to catalyze reactions that break down molecules by removing hydrogen or adding oxygen

diffusion

movement of substances from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration

osmosis

movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from regions of higher concentration to lower concentration

cell membrane

the ____ ________ is composed of a phospholipid bilayer and several different types of transport proteins

metabolism

all the chemical reactions that take place within an organism

catabolism

when larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones, energy is released

anabolism

when larger molecules are synthesized from smaller ones, requires energy input

enzyme

controls the rate of metabolic reactions, lowers activation energy to start reactions

ATP

adenosine triphosphate, form of energy with 3 phosphates

ADP

adenosine diphosphate, form of energy with 2 phosphates

cellular respiration

the harvesting of energy from food, 3 stages: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain

glycolysis

begins with a single molecule of glucose, results in 2 NADH & 2 ATP; produces 2 molecules of pyruvic acid (derivatives of glucose)

citric acid cycle

yields a maximum of 32 ATP

electron transport chain

ETC, a series of molecules located within the mitochondrial inner membrane, drives ATP synthase to produce ATP

lactic acid

is produced in humans when glycolysis is used in anaerobic conditions

ethanol

is produced in yeast when glycolysis is used in anaerobic conditions

32 ATP

how many ATP are produced by cellular respiration?

4 DNA bases

adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine

sugar-phosphate backbone

what makes up the sides of the DNA molecule?

0.10%

what percent of your DNA differs from other people?

98%

what percent of the genome doesn't code for anything?

gene

a unit of heredity that is passed down from parent to offspring

genotype

the letters that contribute to a person's phenotype (eg. AA, Aa, or aa)

phenotype

the expression of a genotype (eg. brown eyes, blue eyes, hazel eyes)

transcription

first step of DNA synthesis, the DNA is read and a single copy is created to be translated to a protein

translation

the information carried by mRNA is read, ingredients in cytoplasm are used to create proteins based on that instruction

mutations

changes in DNA that tend to be disruptive but can be useful and necessary for evolution to take place

epithelial tissue

tissue that covers organs & body surface, lines cavities and hollow organs (eg. simple columnar & pseudostratified columnar)

connective tissue

most abundant type of tissue, provides support & protection, binds structures, serves as frameworks, fills spaces/stores fat, protects against infection, etc (eg. dense regular, cartilage)

muscle tissue

contains muscle fibers, is contractile, consists of skeletal, smooth, & cardiac muscle (eg. skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle)

nervous tissue

tissue found in brain, spinal cord, & nerves (eg. nerve cells)

stratified squamous

which type of epithelial tissue is the skin?

keratinized

when something is ___________, it means that the tissue contains keratin, is typically found on the skin

simple columnar

what kind of epithelial tissue lines the gut?

simple gland

a gland that has only one extension, can contain branches from that one extension

compound gland

a gland that has several extensions off a main branch

fibroblasts

what type of cells make collagen and elastic fibers?

skin functions

- protection from drying the body out/friction - protection from foreign organisms - maintains body temperature - excretes salt/sweat - produces vitamin D - contains sensory (touch) receptors

epidermis

layer of the skin that grows continuously from the basal layer upwards; skin cells die as they move upward away from the growth site

dermis

layer of skin that contains blood vessels & collagen/elastic fibers

hypodermis

layer of the skin that mainly consists of fat

melanocytes

cells that produce melanin and replicate slower than other skin cells, are scattered among basal cells

eumelanin

pigment that produces darker hair colors (brown/black)

pheomelanin

pigment that produces lighter hair colors (red, blonde)

sebacous glands

glands that secrete oily sebum and are associated with hair

sweat glands

glands that secrete a watery fluid mix to help expend heat on the surface of the skin

skeletal system

- support, movement, & protection of the body & internal organs - promotes the formation of blood cells - stores inorganic salts what system is this?

long bone

a bone that has a shaft, 2 ends, and is longer than it is wide

short bone

a bone that is shaped roughly as a cube and contains mostly spongy bone

flat bone

a bone made up of a layer of spongy bone between two layers of compact bone

irregular bone

the bone type that can vary in shape and structure, therefore not fitting into any other category

epiphyseal plate

the main site of longitudinal growth of long bones, seals after puberty begins

bone marrow

the part of the bone that manufactures bone stem cells and blood cells

osteoblasts

which bone cells lay down new bone during skeletal development and remodeling?

osteoclasts

which bone cells are responsible for the reabsorption of bone?

osteocytes

which bone cells trap themselves within the bone matrix and serve to transport nutrients & waste?

intramembranous ossification

bones that originate within sheetlike layers of connective tissue, are broad, flat bones

endochondral ossification

bones that originate as hyaline cartilage, form models for future bones and are most abundant in the skeleton

hyaline cartilage

what type of cartilage coats the ends of bones?

206

how many bones does an adult human have?

axial skeleton

the skeleton made up of the bones in the core of the body (skull, vertebrae, sacrum, tailbone, sternum, ribs)

appendicular skeleton

the skeleton made up of the bones in the appendages (upper & lower extremities, shoulder girdle & pelvis)

fontanels

soft spots on an infant skull that solidify with age, are intended to make birthing easier for the mother

cervical vertebrae

C1-C7, are the first 7 vertebrae of the spine

thoracic vertebrae

T1-T12, are the next 12 vertebrae of the spine

lumbar vertebrae

L1-L5, are the last 5 vertebrae of the spine

sacrum

S1-S5, lower fused portion of the spinec

coccyx

Co1-Co5, the lowest fused section of the vertebrae

true ribs

7 pairs, are the first ribs and directly articulate with the sternum

false ribs

lower 5 pairs, ribs that do not articulate directly with the sternum

floating ribs

the most inferior 2 pairs of ribs, have no ventral connection at all

pectoral girdle

made up of clavicle, scapula, & shoulder blade

pelvic girdle

fused bones in the pelvis; ilium, ischium, & pubis

aging

process that causes bones to become weaker and break more easily

synovial joint

a joint between 2 bones where smooth cartilage exists, synovial fluid sits between to prevent friction and promote smooth movement

bursa

a small fluid-filled sac that reduces friction between moving parts in your body's joints

ball-and-socket joint

what type of joint is the shoulder joint?

hinge joint

what type of joint is the elbow?

abduction

moving a body part away from the bodya

adduction

moving a body part toward the body

supination

turning the palm upward (like to hold a bowl of soup)

pronation

turning the palm downward

flexion

reducing the angle of the joint

extension

increasing the angle at a joint

tendon

connects muscle to bone

ligaments

connect bone to bone

aponeurosis

the thin sheath of connective tissue that helps connect your muscles to your bones

epimysium, perimysium, endomysium

what are the 3 connective tissue coverings of muscles?

striated

repeating bands of the proteins actin and myosin that are present along the length of myofibrils cause skeletal muscles to appear _______

sarcomere

the fundamental repeat unit within muscle that is responsible for contraction; consists of myosin and actin

actin & myosin

what are the 2 proteins responsible for muscle contraction?

synergist

a muscle that assists the prime mover in producing a movement along a jointa

antagonist

a muscle that opposes movement at a joint, eg. triceps & biceps

motor unit

the combination of an individual motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates

neuromuscular junction

a synaptic connection between the terminal end of a motor nerve and a muscle, releases ach from synaptic vesicles

rigor mortis

stiffening of the joints and muscles of a body a few hours after death, usually lasting from one to four days, is the depletion of ATP stores in the muscles

creatine phosphate

used in muscle cells for fast, sprinting motion/explosive exercise