Biology Chapter 11, 13, and 14

How did Gregor Mendel get into the study of heredity?

Being in charge of a monastery garden

What plant did Gregor Mendel use to preform his experiments?

Peas

What does the part of the plant that produces pollen contains what gametes?

Male Reproductive Cells; Sperm

The female portion of the flower contains what gametes?

Eggs

What is the process in which male and female reproductive cells join?

Fertilization

What type of pollination do pea flowers usually preform?

Self-Pollination

What process include sperm cells in pollen fertilizing the egg-cells in the same flower?

Self-Pollination

What type of breeding includes plants producing offspring identical to themselves?

True-Breeding

In Gregor Mendel's pea plants what traits were the basis of his experiments?

Tall vs Short and Green Seeds vs Yellow Seeds

What type of pollination was Gregor Mendel attempting to preform with the pea plants?

Cross Pollination

How did Gregor Mendel prevent self pollination in the pea plants?

By cutting away the pollen producing male reproductive structures

How did Gregor Mendel cross pollinate the pea plants?

By dusting the pollen from another plant onto the flower

What are the original pair of plants called?

The P generation

What does the P in the P generation stand for?

Parental

What are the offspring of the P generation?

The F1 genreation

What does the F in the F1 generation stand for?

First Filial

What does Fillia/us mean in Latin?

Son/Daughter

What are the offspring of crosses between parents with different traits?

Hybrids

What were the seven traits Gregor Mendel studied?

Seed Shape, Seed Color, Seed Coat Color, Pod Shape, Pod Color, Flower Position, and Plant Height

What happened to the characters of the parents after the cross in the F1 generation?

The character of one parent was expressed while the other seemed to have disappeared

What was the first conclusion Gregor Mendel reached after his set of experiments?

Biological inheritance is determined by factors that are passed from generation to the next

What do scientists today call the chemical factors that determine traits?

Genes

What are the different forms of a gene called?

Alleles

What was Gregor Mendel's second conclusion after his set of experiments?

The principal of dominence

What is the principal of dominence?

Some alleles are dominant and some are recessive

In what case will a recessive allele be expressed?

When the dominant allele isn't present

What allele was dominant in pea plant height?

Tall

What allele was recessive in pea plant height?

Short

What allele was dominant in pea plant seed color?

Yellow

What allele was recessive in pea plant seed color?

Green

How did Gregor Mendel answer the question, "Had the recessive alleles disappeared or were they still present in the F1plants?"?

He allowed all of the hybrid plants to produce an F2 generation

How did Gregor Mendel make the F2 generation?

By crossing the F1 generation with itself

What does the F in F2 stand for?

Second Filial

What discovery did the crossing of the F1 generation spark?

The traits controlled by the recessive alleles had reappeared

What is Gregor Mendel's law of segregation?

Each individual that is a diploid has a pair of alleles for a particular trait

What is Gregor Mendel's law of independent assortment?

The alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another

What principals can be used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses?

The Principals of Probability

The gene combination that might result from a genetic cross can be determined by drawing a...

Punnet Square

What are organisms with two identical alleles for a particular trait?

Homozygous

What are organisms with two different alleles for a particular trait?

Heterozygous

If a pea plant has a TT allele and another has tt what is the percent that the cross will result in a tall plant?

100% Tall

If a pea plant has a TT allele and another has Tt what is the percent that the cross will result in a Tt allele?f

50% Tt

If a pea plant has a tt allele and another has Tt what is the percent that the cross will result in a short plant? What about a Tt allele?

50% Short 50% Tt

What are the cases in which some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive?

Incomplete Dominance and Co-dominance

What are the cases in which some traits are controlled by multiple alleles or multiple genes?

Multiple Alleles and Polygenic Traits

What is incomplete dominance?

The hererozygous phenotype is somwhere in betweent eh two homozygous phenotypes (Ex. Red Flower (RR) White Flower (rr) Pink Flower (Rr))

What is codominance?

Both alleles contribute to the phenotype; both alleles are expressed separately (Ex. White Chicken (CC) Black Chicken (cc) Speckled Chicken (Cc))

What are multiple alleles?

More than two possible alleles exist in a population

What are polygenic traits?

Traits that are controlled by two or more genes

What is a cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes?

Diploid

How are diploid chromosomecounts sometimes represented?

2N

Gametes are what type of cell?

Haploid

How many sets of chromosomes do haploid cells have?

1

How are haploid chromosome counts sometimes represented?

N

How many chromosomes do human diploid cells have?

46

How many chromosomes do human haploid cells have?

23

What is meiosis?

The process in which a diploid cell divides into four haploid cells

How is meiosis pronounced?

MY-osis

What occurs during interphase 1 of meiosis?

Cells undergo a round of DNA replication, forming duplicate chromosomes

What occurs during prophase 1 of meiosis?

Each chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome to form a tetrad

What occurs during metaphase 1 of meiosis?

Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes

What occurs during anaphase 1 of meiosis?

The fibers pull the homologous chromosomes toward opposite ends of the cell

What occurs during telophase 1 and cytokenisis of meiosis?

Nuclear membranes form and the cell separates into two cells

What occurs during prophase 2 of meiosis?

Meiosis 1 results in two haploid daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell

What occurs during metaphase 2 of meiosis?

The chromosomes line up similarly to the metaphase stage of meiosis

What occurs during anaphase 2 of meiosis?

The sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite ends of the cell

What occurs during telophase 2 and cytokenisis of meiosis?

Four haploid daughter cells result

In male animals the haploid gametes produced by meiosis are called...

Sperm

In female animals the haploid gametes produced by meiosis are called...

Eggs

What is the major difference between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis results in the production of two genetically identical diploid cells, whereas meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells

A diploid cell that divides by mitosis gives rise to...

Two identical diploid daughter cells

A diploid cell that divides by meiosis will divide how many times?

Twice

A diploid cell that divides by meiosis gives rise to...

Four genetically different haploid daughter cells

How do sexually producing organisms produce gametes?

Meiosis

Does asexual reproduction involve mitosis or meiosis?

Mitosis

Who discovered the principal of linkage?

Thomas Hunt Morgan

In what year was the principal of linkage first discovered?

1910

How did Thomas Hunt Morgan figure out gene linkage?

By researching fruit flies

Each chromosome is...

A group of linked genes

What sorts independently chromosomes or individual genes?

Chromosomes

What are gene maps?

A map of the relative locations of genes on a chromosome

How are gene maps produced?

Recombination Rates

What are recombination rates?

Rates that measure the frequencies of crossing over between genes

What is selective breeding?

Allowing only animals with desired characteristics to produce the next generation

How do humans use selective breeding?

By taking advantage of naturally occurring genetic variation in plants, animals, and other organisms, to pass desired traits on to the next generation of organisms

What is hypbridization?

Crossing dissimilar individuals to bring together the best of both organisms

Which is hardier hybrids or their parents?

Hybrids

What is inbreeding

The continued breeding of individuals with similar characteristics

What is inbreeding used for?

To maintain the desired characteristics of a line of organisms

What is the risk of inbreeding?

The crossing of the two genetically similar organisms can lead to a higher likelyhood of birth defects

How can breeders increase genetic variation in a population?

Inducing Mutations

What are the ultimate sources of genetic variation?

Genetic Mutations

What are mutations?

Inheritable changes in DNA

How do breeders increase the mutation rate?

By using radiation and chemicals

What is polypoidy?

Organisms having extra sets of chromosomes

Who tolerates polypoidy better animals or plants?

Plants

How are changes made to DNA?

Extracting DNA froms cells, cutting it into smaller pieces, identifying the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule, and replicating it

What is genetic engineering?

Making changes in the DNA code of a living organism

How do biologists extract DNA?

Opening cells and separating the DNA from the other cell parts

How is DNA cut into easier to understand pieces?

Using restriction enzymes the DNA is cut in specific nucleotide sequences

How are DNA fragments separated and analyzed?

Through gel electrophoresis

How does gel electrophoresis work?

A mixture of DNA fragments are placedat one end of a porous gel and an electric charge pulls the DNA molecules accross organizing the DNA by size

What charge does DNA have?

Negative

What is the gene copy machine called?

The PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

What uses heating and cooling to copy genetic information?

The PCR

Who was the American inventor of the PCR?

Kary Mullis

Where did Kary Mullis find the enzyme that can stnd the repeated cycles of heating and cooling?

Yellowstone National Park

What enzyme, that Kary Mullis found in Yellowstone National Park, is used in the PCR?

Taq-Polymerase

What is cell transformation?

When cells takes in external DNA from the outside of the cell to become a component of the cells's DNA

What is the simplest way bacteria can be transformed?

Putting DNA fragments in a solution with DNA molecules

What is the foreign DNA first joined to during the transformation process?

A Plasmid

Where are plasmids naturally found?

In some bacteria

Why is plasmid DNA so useful for DNA trasfer?

It has a DNA sequence that helps promote plasmid replication and contains a gene that makes it possible to distinguish bacteria that carry the plasmid and foreign DNA and those that don't

If a plasmid contraining the foreign DNA manages to get inside a bacterial cell what will happen?

This sequence ensures that it will be replicated

What is a genetic marker?

A gene that makes it possible to distinguish bacteria that carry the plasmid and those that don't

What genes are typically used as markers?

Those that resist antibiotics and compounds that kill bacteria

What does a marker do?

It makes it possible for researchers to mix recombinant DNA to transform one cell in a million and still find that one cell

After transformation what is the culture treated with?

An Antibiotic

The only cells that survive transformation are...

Those that carry a resistance gene

How are many plant cells transformed?

By using a process that takes advantage of a bacterium

What does the bacteria insert into the plant to produce tumors in the cells?

A Small DNA Plasmid

When cell walls are removed what do the plant cells do?

They sometimes take up DNA on their own

What happens if the transformation succeeds?

The recombinant DNA is integrated into one of the chromosomes of the cell

Many of what animals cell are large enough to directly inject DNA into its nucleus?

Eggs

Once inside the nucleus enzymes are normally responsible for...

DNA Repair

Recombination may help...

To insert the foreign DNA into the chromosomes of the injected cell

What does transgenic mean?

An organism that contains genes from other species

What has sparked the growth of biotechnology?

Genetic Engineering

Why do transgenic bacteria now produce a lot of important substances useful for health and industry?

Because they reproduce rapidly and are easy to grow

What have transgenic animals been used for primarily?

To study genes and to improve the food supply

What type of transgenic organism has now become an important part of our food supply?

Transgenic Plants

Many transgenic plants contain...

Genes that produce natural insecticide

What is a clone?

A member of a population of genetically identical cells produced from a single cell

Which is harder to grow, cloned microorganisms or animals?

Animals`

What was the first animal clone?

Dolly the Sheep

What is the first step of cloning a sheep?

A donor cell is taken from a sheep's udder and an egg sell is taken from an adult female sheep

What is the second step of cloning a sheep?

The nucleus of the egg cell is removed

What is the third step of cloning a sheep?

The nucleus-less egg and the donor cell are fused using an electric shock

What is the fourth step of cloning a sheep?

The fused cell begins dividing normally

What is the fifth step of cloning a sheep?

The embryo is placed in the uterus of a foster mother

What is the sixth step of cloning a sheep?

The embryo develops into a lamb (Ex. Dolly)

As technology for cloning improves what will become a more pressing issue?

Ethics and Morals

How do cell biologists analyze chromosomes?

By photographing cells during mitosis

Why is photographing cells during mitosis helpful for analyzing chromosomes?

Because it is when the cells are condensed and easy to see