AP-Psychology Vocab

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence

applied research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems as opposed to basic research

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, He developed theories of sensaton, perception, memory, ethics, etc. His approach defined science until the onset of empiricism.

B. F. Skinner

Behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

basic research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base as opposed to applied research

behavioral approach

Psychology approach that studies observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning and reinforcement

biological approach

Psychology approach that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

biopsychosocial approach

Integrated modern approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Carl Rogers

1902-1987; Approach: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882) Evolutionary approach

clinical psychology

Branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

cognitive approach

Psychology approach that studies the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicatin

cognitive neuroscience

Interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

counseling psychology

Branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

developmental psychology

Branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

Edward Titchener

Introduced experimental psychology to the United States

empiricism

Knowledge originates in experience and science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

evolutionary approach

Psychology approach that studies the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

experimental psychology

Study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

functionalism

School of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function. How they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish. Associated with William James

G. Stanley Hall

American psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association

Gestalt Psychology

Psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

human factors psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

Branch of psychology that applies psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Introspection

Method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936) (Behavioral approach)

John B. Watson

Behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Margaret Floyd Washburn

First female PhD in psychology

Mary Whiton Calkins

American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; first woman president of the American Psychological Association.

natural selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

personality psychology

Branch of psychology that studies an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting

Plato

Greek philosopher; first philosopher credited with studying how we obtain knowledge.

psychiatry

Branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy and can prescribe medications

psychoanalytic approach

Psychology approach that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders (sometimes called psychodynamic)

psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes

psychometrics

Scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Rene Descartes

French nativist philosopher; proponent of dualism; argued that "threads" within the body control movement, and that some behaviors occur without thought thus it was biology, not "spirits" behind sensations and behaviors.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939)

social psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

socio-cultural approach

Psychology approach that studies how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Socrates

Greek philosopher; socratic method of questioning.

structuralism

Early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind - associated with Wilhelm Wundt

Wilhelm Wundt

German physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879. Known as the Father of Psychology. Developed structuralism. First to use instrospection.

William James

Founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you knew that all along

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables. Ex: human intelligence -- what an intelligence test measures.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Case Study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

Population

All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatter plot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variable

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance ,thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Double Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Placebo Effect

any effect that seems to be a consequence of administering a placebo

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated--the variable whose effect is being studied

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Dependent Variables

The outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution--half the scores are above it and half are below it

Standard Deviations

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve/distribution

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Informed Consent

an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Sample

items selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Inferential Statistics

numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance

Placebo

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

dendrites

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

action potential

a brief electrical charge that travels down its axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of receiving neuron. the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure (morphine-like)

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables by connecting the central

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles, also called the skeletal nervous system. Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscle.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs, such as the heart. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

lesion

tissue destruction; a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG scan (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. Functional imaging

CT scan (computed tomography)

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. AKA cat scan/X-Ray. Structural imaging

PET scan (positron emission tomography)

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. Functional Imaging

MRI scan (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue. Stuctural Imaging

fMRI scan (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing sucessive MRI scans. Sturcutal and functioninal imaging

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing, swallowing, etc. Part of the brainstem.

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an importand role in controlling arousal and wakefullness. Part of the brainstem.

thalamus

relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex.

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, procedural memories and coordinating movement output and balance.

limbic system

doughnut-shaped neural system that plays a role in regulating important functions such as memory, fear, aggression, hunger and thirst.

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotions such as fear and anger.

hypothalamus

a neural structure in the limbic system lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland; linked to emotion and reward and sexual function.

hippocampus

a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process newmemories for storage.

cerebral cortex

ultimate control and information-processing center. the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres.

Glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking,muscle movements (motor cortex) and in making plans and judgements.

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear. Includes the somatosensory cortex and general association areas used for processing information.

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; primary visual processing areas of the brain.

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears. Includes auditory processing areas

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

sensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

Broca's area

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wenicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly of the corpus callosum connecting them)

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language)

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Behavior Genetics

: the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Enviroment

every no genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

DNA

): a complex molecule containing genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genes

: the biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes, a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in its chromosomes. (blue print)

Identical twins

: twins who developed from single zygote that splits into two.

Fraternal Twins

: twins who develop from separate eggs. Genetically no closer than brothers and sisters but share a fetal environment

Heritability

the proportion of phenotypic variation (difference) in a population attributable to genetic factors

Interaction

the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Molecular Genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

Evolutionary Psychology

a discussion of how genes and the environment interact and how genes change to fit the environment; how traits that have led to survival are more likely to be passed down

Natural Selection

the process by which individuals that are better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more successfully than less well adapted individuals do

Mutation

Certain biological and behavioral variations increase organisms' reproductive and survival chances in their particular environment

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits

Genotype

The combination of genes for one or more specific traits