AP Psych Bio Unit Complete

Humans are what kind of system?

Biopsychological

neurons

nerve cells that are the basic blocks of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center

dendrites

bushy extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses towards the body. They are "branching fibers"

axon

extension of the neuron which carries, via an action potential, information that will be sent on to other neurons, muscles or glands

What does a neuron look like?

shown in this picture

Depending on where it needs to stretch, the axon can vary in...

length

some axons are encased in a...

myelin sheath

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed

What can occur if the myelin sheath degenerates?

Multiple Sclerosis (MS), in which we have slowed communication leading to eventual loss of muscle control

Glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. It moves very slowly and can be stimulated by senses or neighboring neurons

The axon's surface is...

selectively permeable, meaning it is selective about what is allowed through its gates.

What happens when a neuron fires?

Depolarization occurs; channels in the axon's surface open up and positive and negative ions more in and out of the neuron.

Two types of neural signals

excitatory and inhibitory

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

What happens if excitatory signals exceed inhibitory signals by a certain threshold?

an action potential will be triggered

refractory period

a period where subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Synaptic Gap

space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the receptors of the next neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons, across the synapse and binding to receptor sites on the receiving neuron

reuptake

when excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron

Endorphins

opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure. Opiate drugs can suppress its supply

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

Antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. (made up of neurons communicating with neurotransmitters to make decisions)

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory neurons

neurons that carry information from tissue and sensory receptors to the CNS

motor neurons

neurons that carry information from the CNS to muscles/glands

interneurons

neurons within the CNS that communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs

Two parts of the PNS

somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system

controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

controls glands and muscles of internal organs

two parts of the ANS

sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

sympathetic nervous system

arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

parasympathetic nervous system

calms the body, conserving its energy

the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems work together to maintain...

homeostasis

reflexes

simple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli, such as the knee-jerk response

what would happen if the top of your spinal cord were to be severed?

you'd be paralyzed from the waist down

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress.

What hormones do the adrenal gland normally produce?

ephinephrine and norepinephrine

What do adrenaline and noradrenaline do?

Increase heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar. and helps trigger flight-or-fight response

pituitary gland

regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. It also releases hormones that stimulate physical development and oxytocin, which enables contractions in females and stimulates social trust

Lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

optogenetics

using light to control a limited population of neurons

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG

measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity

CT Scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

PET Scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

mri

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

pons

Sits above medulla and helps coordinate movement

thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

limbic system

contains amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus.

a neural system below the cerebral hemispheres associated with drives and emotions

Limbic system

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

reward deficiency syndrome

people crave whatever relieves negative feelings

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Parletal Lobe

lay at the top rear of the head and receive sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Split Brain(s)

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition, including perception, thinking, memory, and language.

Dual Processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

Parallel Processing

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions

Sequential Processing

Processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Environment

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and the things around us.

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.

Gene

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.

Identical (monozygotic) twins

Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal (dizygotic) Twins

Develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Molecular Genetics

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

Molecular Behavior Genetics

The study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior.

Epogenetics

"Above" or "in addition to" (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior of the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Mutation(s)

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

Social Script

A culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Paul Broca

Discovered area in the brain (named for him) in the left frontal lobe responsible for language production

Carl Wernicke

Discovered an area of the brain (in the left temporal lobe) involved in language comprehension and expression was named for him because he discovered it

Roger Sperry

Studied split-brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions

Michael Gazzaniga

Split-brain research; understanding of functional lateralization in the brain; how the cerebral hemispheres communicate

Charles Darwin

English naturalist. He studied the plants and animals of South America and the Pacific islands, and set forth his theory of evolution.

Contracting pupils would be caused by the ______ ______ _____

Parasympathetic nervous system

An accelerated heartbeat is caused by the ______ _____ _____

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic system ______ digestion, while the parasympathetic _____ digestion.

Inhibits, stimulates

The sympathetic nervous system ______ the body, ______ it's energy.

Arouses, mobilizing

The parasympathetic nervous system ____ the body, _____ it's energy.

Calms, conserving

The CNS is made up of the _____ and ____ ____

Brain, spinal cord

The PNS is made up of ______ and _____ ___-

Sensory and motor neurons

What are the two parts of the PNS?

Somatic and autonomic

The somatic nervous system controls the body's ____ _____

Skeletal muscles

The autonomic nervous system controls the ____ and the muslces of _____ ______

Glands and muscles of internal organs

The autonomic nervous system operates _____

Automatically/ without conscious effort

Fight, Flight, or Freeze is in reference to the ____ ____ ____

Sympathetic Nervous System

Rest or Digest is in reference to the ________ ____ ___

Parasympathetic nervous system

Sleep

The recovery period when a person's body goes through its recovery sleep stages.

Circadian rhythm

Our biological clock, regular body rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams occur. Paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active.

Alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages EXCEPT for REM sleep (NREM-1, 2, and 3)

NREM-1

The stage of sleep where dreams may spontaneously begin, and muscles may move in a jerky motion. This stage only lasts about 5-10 minutes.

NREM-2

The stage of sleep where your brain waves slow down even more, and little wave clusters called sleep spindles commonly occur. You will spend about 1/2 of your sleep in this stage. You will revisit this stage often.

NREM-3

Slow-wave sleep/DELTA SLEEP. Brainwave cycles are less than 1 cycle per second. Deep sleep.

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Hypnagogic sensations

Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep.

Delta waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. Modifies our feelings of sleepiness in response to light.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncomfortable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Sleep apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Night terrors

A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3, within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

Dream

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.

Manifest content

According to Freud, the symbolic and remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent/hidden content.)

Sigmund Freud

The father of psychoanalytics, which emphasizes the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect out behavior.

According to Freud, daughters are envious of their ____ and spend their lives trying to be more like them to get their opposite spouse.

Mothers

According to Freud, sons are envious of their ____ and want a woman like their mother.

Fathers

Latent content

According to Freud, the underlying meaning of dreams (as distinct from its manifest content)

REM rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

Psychoactive drug

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.