Biology 1050 Final Exam ECU

Intrinsic value

The inherent value of biodiversity, independent of its value to humans

Extrinsic (utilitarian) value

The value of biodiversity to humans, often described as ecosystem services can be grouped in four categories

Extrinsic value categories:

Provisioning services, habitat services, regulating services, cultural services

Provisioning services

Food, raw materials, fresh water, medicines

Habitat services

Habitat for species, maintenance of genetic diversity

Regulating services

Air, water, soil quality, carbon storage and climate regulation, pollination and biological control

Cultural services

What levels does biodiversity occur?

Ecosystem, species, genes and alleles

Where does the greatest biodiversity occur?

Diversity is reduced with increasing latitude - AWAY from the equator

On average, how long do species persist for?

10 million years

Mass extinctions

A large number of species become extinct over a short amount of time

Background extinctions

These extinctions occur at lower rates during times other than mass extinctions

Geographic range

Species restricted in their range are more vulnerable than species with extensive ranges

Local population size

Species with small population sizes are at increased risk of extinction

Habitat tolerance

Species with narrow habitat tolerances are at greater risk of extinction than species with broader habitat tolerances

Invasive species

Brown tree snake, purple loosestrife, zebra mussels

How do human activities damage our environment?

Burning fossil fuels - releasing elements into the atmosphere the mix with water vapor

Acid rain harms what?

Forests and aquatic ecosystems

Greenhouse effect

1. Energy from the sun passes easily through the atmosphere to warm the earth's surface 2. Some energy is reflected back toward safe and escapes the atmosphere 3. Some energy is absorbed by greenhouse gases and remains trapped in the atmosphere, heating the air

On average the temperature of the earth has increased rapidly over how many years?

Past 50 years

Strategies for a solution to global warming?

Reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (burning fossil fuels)

What do trapped bubbles in ice cores show?

Atmospheric composition, greenhouse gas concentration, temperature trends, snowfall, solar activity, frequency of fires

Biological systems show the effects of climate change how?

Trees and flowers blooming earlier in the northern latitudes, migratory birds are arriving at summer ranges earlier, birds and butterflies are expanding geographic ranges northward, arctic ice is thinning and melting

What are the warnings of global climate change?

Infectious disease may change or expand ranges - mosquitoes and ticks

What efforts can be used to fight global climate change?

Reduce fossil fuel consumption, reduce deforestation, increase energy efficiency of our homes and cars, new innovative technologies

Biomes are...

Large ecosystems - each determined by temperate and rainfall

Types of terrestrial ecosystem diversity

Tundra, coniferous forest, temperate deciduous forest, temperate grassland, chaparral, desert, tropical rainforest, savanna, polar ice

Aquatic biomes are determined by what?

Physical natures including salinity, water movement, depth

Types of aquatic ecosystems

Lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, estuaries and wetlands, intertidal zones, coral reefs, open oceans

Why are beach communities cooler in summer and warmer in winter than island communities?

Water capacity to absorb and hold heat

Why are there several ocean circulation patterns?

Because of the flow of water in the oceans due to wind, the earth's rotation, the gravitational pull of the moon, temperature, salt concentration

Which beaches have warmer waters, the east coast or the west coast?

East coast

What does thermohaline mean?

The differences in water density which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline)

Mountain pressure

Lower pressure at the top and higher pressure at the bottom

How does rain form?

Air is heated and rises, rising air cools, cooling air loses moisture

How does the desert form?

Deserts are formed by weathering processes are large variations in temperatures between day and night outs strained on the rocks, which break into pieces

Types of human engineering

Asphalt, cement, and tops of buildings absorb heat, raising the temperature

What direction to tall buildings channel wind?

Downward

What causes seasons?

The earth's tilted axis - when the earth's axis points towards the sun, it is summer for the hemisphere - when the earth's axis points away, winter is expected

Why is it warmer at the equator and cold at the poles?

The sun shines most directly on the earth's equator leading to warmer temperatures at lower latitudes

What is a niche?

The role an organism plays in a community

True or false - parasitism is a form of predation

True

What kind of relationship do parasites have with their hosts?

Symbiotic

Parasites are...

Predators that benefit from a symbiotic relationship with their host

Ectoparasites

Bedbugs - live ON their host (human)

Endoparasites

Tapeworms - live INSIDE their host

What kind of parasite can induce foolish, fearless behaviors in their host?

Toxoplasma

What kind of parasite can induce inappropriate aggression in their host?

Rabies

What kind of parasite can induce bizarre and risky behaviors in their host?

Lancet fluke

What is mutualism?

When both species benefit from an interaction - fish scrape algae from the shells of the greens sea turtles

What is commensalism?

When one species benefits from an interstice and the other neither benefits nor is harmed - cattle egret feeds on insects stirred up by a gazing buffalo

Describe predation

When there is an interactive between two species in which one species eats the other

Where does energy flow within an ecosystem?

From producers to consumers

Define producers

Plants convert light energy from the sun into food through photosynthesis - grass

Define primary consumers

Herbivores are animals that eat plants - bunny rabbit

Define secondary consumers

Carnivores are animals that eat herbivores - snakes

Define tertiary consumers

Top carnivores are animals that eat other carnivores - eagle or owl

What is the 10% rule?

Approximately 10% form the biomass from each tropic levels is converted into biomass in the next tropic level

1st law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed

2nd law of thermodynamics

With EVERY transfer of energy the quality of the engird decreases

The carbon cycle

1. Carbon enters the atmosphere as CO2 2. CO2 is absorbed by plants 3. Animals consume plants, thereby, incorporating carbon into their system 4. Animals and plants die, their bodies decompose and carbon is reabsorbed back into the atmosphere

Consumer

An animal that cannot produce its own food and must eat plants or other animals for energy - (they can be herbivores, carnivores, omnivores) - insects, reptiles, mammals

Producer

An organism that produces its own food - plants or algae

Herbivore

A consumer that eats only plants - grasshopper

Omnivore

A consumer that eats both plants and animals - humans

Carnivore

A consumer that only eats meat - lions

What does biotic mean?

Living things

What are the levels of ecology?

Individuals, populations, communities, ecosystems

What does abiotic mean?

Nonliving things

Exponential growth

A populations size increases at a rate proportional to its current size

What happens when populations increase in size?

Increases competition for food, increasing competition for places to live and breed, increases the chances of parasites and disease, increase predation risk

Logistic growth

Population growth has stabilized because of the resource limitations

Population density

The number of individuals in a given area

Density-dependent factors

Conditions that limit population growth due to population size in a given area

Carrying capacity - K

The ceiling on growth for a given population in a particular environment

R selected

Many offspring with little care

K selected

Few offspring, but you put energy into making sure that the reach reproductive age

How many people were there on Earth as of October 31, 2011?

Over 7 billion people

By 2050, approximately how many people will there be on Earth?

Between 10 and 12 billion people

Less developed country - Kenya

Triangle shape due to high birth rates and high death rates in older individuals

More developed countries - Norway

Rectangular shape due to low birth rates and low death rates in older individuals

Demographic transition - Slow growth

Populations with low food supply and lack of reliable health care usually have high birth and death rates Birth rate: high Death rate: high Population growth rate: low

Demographic transition - High growth

Improvements in food production and health care reduce the death rate - the birth rate remains relatively high so the population grows rapidly Birth rate: high Death rate: low Population growth rate: low

Demographic transition - Slow growth

With continued industrialization comes higher levels of education and employment and improved health care - these factors reduce the birth rate and slow the population's growth Birth rate: low Death rate: low Population growth rate: low

Density-dependent factors

Disease, lock of food, pollution, competition

True or false - Individuals do not evolve

True - populations evolve

What does microevolution mean?

Changes that occur in the genetic characteristics of a population over time

Charles Darwin

Described the idea of Natural Selection - The Origin of Species - Published in 1859

George Cuvier

Founder of comparative anatomy - the ability to reconstruct animals from fragments of fossil fuels

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Living species might change over time - religious beliefs - that God created everything exactly as it is now

Charles Lyell

1830 Book of Geological Factors - had shaped the earth and were continuing to do so - gradual but constant change - gradualism

Thomas Malthus - Essay on the Principle of Population

He was an economist - his theory states that food production will not be able o keep up with growth on human population, resulting in disease, famine, war, and calamity

Natural selection

The process by which populations adapt to their environment

Alfred Russel Wallace

Independently identified processes of evolution by natural selection - 1858

Theory VS Scientific Theory

Theory: everyday theory means the best guess Scientific theory: Boyd of scientifically acceptable general principles that help explain how the universe works

Evidence of evolution is shown by...

Fossil records, biogeography, homologies, molecular biology, lab and field experiments

Biogeography

The study of the distribution patterns of living organisms around the world

Fossils

Are preserved remains of organisms from long ago

Homology

The similarity in characteristics that results from common ancestry - similarities can be in behavior, dna, and physical structure

Comparative anatomy and embryology reveal common evolutionary origins

Shared embryological stages indicate common ancestry

Comparative anatomy

Vestigial traits are nonfunctional traits in organisms - they are similar to function traits in other organisms

Evolutionary Changes: Mutations

Is the ultimate source of genetic variation in a population Mutations either: - Do not impact fitness - Cause early death - Reduce an organisms reproductive success

Genetic drift

Can lead to fixation (an alleles frequency in a population reaches 100%)

True or false - Polydactyly is a dominant allele

True

Migration (gene flow)

Movement of some individuals of a species from one population to another

Variation of a Trait

Think of dogs - different kinds of dogs but all function the same

Heritability

Traits from parents to their children through genetic information inheritance or heritability

Differential Reproductive Success

1. There are more organisms born than can survive 2. Organisms are continually struggling for existence 3. Some organisms are more likely than others to survive and reproduce

Adaptation

The process by which organisms become better matched to their environment and the specific features that make an organism more fit

Hba Hba Homozygote

- Does not have sickle-cell disease - Is susceptible to malaria

Hbs Hba Heterozygote

- Does not have sickle-cell disease - Is immune to malaria

Hbs Hbs Homozygote

- Has sickle-cell disease - Is immune to malaria

How is an individuals fitness measured?

An individuals fitness is measured relative to other genotypes or phenotypes in the population

What do all living things share?

Carbohydrate, proteins, lipids, ATP

Alleles

Different versions of a gene that code of the same feature

Trait

Any single characteristic or feature of an organism

What kind of cell does meiosis start with?

A diploid cell

Homologous pair

The maternal or paternal copies of a chromosome

Meiosis - Interphase

Each chromosome in a homologous pair replicates to form a sister chromatid

Meiosis 1

Homologous pairs separate

Meiosis 2

The sister chromatids separate - creating 4 haploid cells - 2 contain a single copy of one of the original chromosomes - 2 contain a single copy of the other chromosome

Law of Segregation

Pairs separate during meiosis

How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?

23

Genotype

All of the genes contained an organisms - alleles you have for eye color

Phenotype

The physical manifestations of the instructions - this is your eye color

A allele

Dominant allele for normal coat color

a allele

Recessive allele for albino coat color

AA

Homozygous dominant

Aa

Heterozygous dominant

aa

Homozygous recessive - albino

Genotypic ratio

Expresses whether or not the offspring are homozygous dominant, heterozygous, or homozygous recessive

Phenotypic ration

Expresses what traits the offspring are exhibiting (ear lobe shape or blood type)

Incomplete dominance

Occurs when a heterozygote exhibits an intermediate phenotype between the two homozygotes

Multiple allelism

- A single-parent gene has more than two alleles - Each individual still carries only two alleles

What are the different types of blood?

A, A, AB, O

Which blood types are dominant to O?

A and B alleles

Which blood types are codominant to each other?

A and B alleles

Antigens

A foreign in substance that enters your body

Antibodies

A protein produced by your immune system to attack and fight off the antigen

Type A blood

- Can donate to A and AB - Can receive from A and O

Type B blood

- Can donate to B and AB - Can receive from B and O

Type AB blood

- Can donate to AB - Can receive from A, B, AB, O

Type O blood

- Can donate to A, B, AB, O - Can receive from O

What does "poly" mean?

Many

Pleiotropic

1 gene controlling many traits

X-linked genes

- Much larger and carries more genes - ALL recessive

How many X-linked genes for a male carry?

1

Y-linked genes

- Located on the Y chromosome - Passes ONLY from fathers to sons - very few genes on the Y chromosome

Nature gene

The genes we are born with and other hereditary factors that can impact how our personality is formed

Nurture gene

Encompasses the environmental factors that impact who we are

Telomeres

Sections of bonding, repetitive dna that acts as a protective cap to the top of each chromosome

Mitosis

To enable cells to generate new genetically identical cells - growth and replacement

Somatic cells

Are cells forming the body of the organism - have the diploid number of chromosomes

Reproductive cells

Are the sex cells

Mitosis stage 1

Interphase: dna is copied

Mitosis stage 2

Mitosis: dna is split equally into two daughter cells

Mitosis stage 3

Cytokinesis: parents cell is cleaved in half

Chromosomes in eukaryotes are...

Linear

Chromosomes in prokaryotes are...

Circular

Cancer

Characterized by unrestrained cell growth and division that can damage adjacent tissues

Benign tumors

Masses of normal cells - don't spread

Malignant tumors

Shed and spread cancer cells - metastasis

How does cancer travel?

Cancer travels through the body by way of the lymphatic and circulatory system

What is a biopsy?

A surgical procedure of the removal of cells, tissues, or fluid for analysis

Cancer stage 0

Carcinoma in situ - early cancer that is present only in the layer of cells in which is began

Cancer stage 1, 2, 3

Higher numbers indicate more extensive diseases - greater tumor size, and or spread of cancer to nearby lymph nodes and or organs adjacent to the primary tumor

Cancer stage 4

The cancer has spread to another organ

Chemotherapy

Chemicals that kill diving cells are injected into the blood stream

Radiation therapy

High-energy particles of the dna so cells don't divide - is often administered in addition to chemotherapy

Remission

If the patient is no longer suffering negate impact from cancer are a given period

BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 genes

- Breast cancer - Ovarian cancer - Prostate cancer - Pancreatic cancer

Which cancers are the most curable?

Testicular cancer, Hodgkin's disease, many cases of leukemia, skin cancers, thyroid cancer, cancer of the larynx

Which cancers are the most difficult to treat?

Lung, colon, breast, prostate

What is prostate cancer?

The prostate gland is below the bladder and in front of the rectum - makes a fluid that mixes with sperm and other fluids during ejaculation - Prostate cancer can grow quickly and spread to other parts of the body or grow slowly and stay in the prostate - 3 our of 4 cases of prostate cancer are slow growing

Early detection

Self exams and mammography

Breast cancer treatment

Surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, anti-hormonal treatment

Breast cancer treatment - tamoxifen

Blocks the action of the female hormone, estrogen - Estrogen promotes the growth of some type of breast cancer

HPV

The major cause of cervical cancer - 10,000 were diagnosed in 2006 and nearly 4,000 will die from fit

Gametes

Are sex cells - which have the haploid number of chromosomes

Autosomes

Are all the chromosomes EXCEPT the sec chromosomes

The purpose of meiosis

1. It reduces the amount of genetic material in gametes 2. It produces gametes that differ from one another with respect to the combinations of alleles they carry

Diploid cells

Have two copies of each chromosomes

Fertilization

Two haploid cells merge to create a diploid individual

Female chromosome

XX

Male chromsome

XY

Trisomy 21

Down syndrome - Dr. John Langdon Down in 1866 - affects 1 in 1,000 children

Nondisjunction

Unequal distribution of chromosomes during cell division

Recombinant dna

Involves using enzymes and various laboratory techniques to manipulate and isolate dna segments of interest

Cloning

The creation of a cope of a cell or of an entire living thing

Mitochondrial dna

Inherited from female - "haplogroups"

Dna structure

- Double helix: two sugar-phosphate backbones spiral around each other

Nucleotide

The unit of a dna molecule has three components - a phosphate group, a sugar, nitrogen-containing base

What 3 components make up the nucleotide unit of dna?

A sugar, a phosphate group, nitrogen-contains base

What are the base pairs for dna?

A-T (apples to trees) G-C (garage to car)

Rna structure

- A sugar molecule in the RNA backbone contains an extra oxygen - Instead of thymine, rna has a similar base called uracil - Rna has only one sugar phosphate backbone

Rna function

Rna acts like the middleman molecule, it takes instructions for the production of a protein from dna, moves Tham to another part of the cell, directs the building of a protein

Transcription

A copy of a genes base sequence in made - by reading the information coded in dna

Translation

That copy is used to direct the production of a polypeptide - using information from dna in building useable molecules

Potential energy

The energy that is stored in the bonds between atoms (ball at top of a hill)

Kinetic energy

When bonds are broken, energy is released (ball rolling down a hill)

Glucose equation

C6H12O6

ATP equation

ATP - ADP + phosphate group + energy release

What is atp?

A substance present in all living cells that provides energy for many metabolic processes and is involved in making rna

Why is atp important?

Provides the energy needed for many essential processes in organisms and cells

Photosynthesis equation

CO2 + H2O + light energy - C6H12O6 + O2

What is aerobe cellular respiration?

The process of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen gas to produce energy from food

Why is oxygen important in the process of aerobic cellular respiration?

Glucose reacts with oxygen, forming atp that can be used by the cell

Electromagnetic spectrum

Range of energy within a ray of light that is organized into different wavelengths

Short the wavelength, higher the ______

Energy

How do plants use light?

All plants require light for photosynthesis, the process within a plant that converts light, oxygen, and water into carbohydrates (energy)