General Biology 1st Periodical Test

Growth and Development

All organisms have the ability to grow and develop.

Maintain Homeostasis

Organisms must maintain a steady state of internal condition despite varying conditions

Reproduction

The ability to reproduce more organisms of their own kind.

Response to Environment or Stimuli

Organisms have the ability to respond to their surroundings.

Adaptation

a process of an organism adjusting to better match its environment.

Positive Response

Reaction towards stimulus

Negative Response

Reaction away from stimulus

Energy Processing

All organisms require energy for their cellular metabolic activities to occur.

Autotrophic organisms

producers who can make their own food through the energy from the sun

Heterotrophic organisms

consumers who need to take in substances as food to be broken down into energy.

Organized

Organisms form highly organized and coordinated structures in order to function properly

Cell

The smallest functional unit of all living things.

DNA

Carries genetic materials. Without it, livings things would not be able to pass

microscope

an instrument used to see objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye.

Zacharias Janssen

A Dutch spectacle-maker Inventor of one-lense microscope

Galileo Galilei

Discoverer of Telescope Two-lense Microscope: a bi-convex objective and a bi-concave eyepiece.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

Father of Microbiology First to discover bacteria and protozoa Discovered bacteria from the dental scrapings of his teeth Discovered protozoa through a raindrop sample

Animalcules

what leeuwenhoek called protozoa and bacteria

Robert Hooke

Coined the term “cell”

piece of cork stripped from the trunk of the Cork Oak tree

san pinangalan ni hooke ung cell

Micrographia

hooke's book containing all of his observations through various lenses.

“My new bodies”

english title of hooke's book

Matthias Schlieden

German Botanist “Every plant is made up of cells”

Theodor Schwann

A zoologist “Every animal is made up of cells”

Rudolf Virchow

Father of Modern Pathology

“omnis cellula e cellula”

“every cell stems from another cell.”

Biogenesis

“Life came from life”

Spontaneous Generation

“Life came from the non-living”

All known living things are made up of cells. The cell is a structural and functional unit of all living things. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.

Postulates of Cell Theory

All cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during division. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition. All energy flow of life occurs within cells.

Additional Postulates of Cell Theory

Proteins

Large, complex molecules play several critical roles in the body.

Carbohydrates

Its most important function is being the primary source of energy.

Lipids

The basic building blocks for all cells and they play many important and varied roles.

Nucleic Acids

Two types: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) Also referred to as the “thread of

endosymbiotic theory

it was about 2 billion years ago when some large prokaryote managed to create a nucleus by folding its cell membrane in on itself and it may have appeared after prokaryotic cells joined together to form a bigger organism.

Nucleus

Found majority on eukaryotic cells and considered as the largest organelle, accounting for around 10% of the cell’s volume.

Cell compartmentalization

The process of selectively permeable nuclear envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from that of the cytoplasm. Sabi ni miss eto daw ung nakakafunction ung mga organelles on their own kasi may barrier sila na membrane so sabay-sabay sila.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Major site of synthesis in the cell

rough endoplasmic reticulum

takes proteins from the cytosol and continues its production in the golgi apparatus until completion.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

is important in lipid, phospholipid and steroid synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies proteins and lipids which are obtained from the endoplasmic reticulum.

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell It has inner and outer membrane with an intermembrane space in between

Lysosomes

An acidic membrane-bound organelle that contain numerous hydrolytic enzymes which catalyze hydrolysis reactions

Vacuoles

Surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast which encloses fluid containing inorganic materials like water and organic materials like nutrients and enzymes.

Vacuoles

It acts as a storage for nutrients as well as waste materials to protect the cell from toxicity.

Vesicles

A membrane-bound organelle containing liquid or cytosol which is enclosed by a lipid bilayer.

Chloroplast

A type of plastid that involved in photosynthesis in plants and algae It contains high concentration of chlorophyll that traps sunlight

Non-membrane bound cell organelles

Organelles that are not fluid-filled and do not need to be separated from the rest of the cell in the same way as membrane-bound organelles.

Ribosomes

Structure of cell which produces protein.

prokaryotes are about 60% rRNA and 40% protein, while the eukaryotes can be very evenly divided between the two.

percentage of rRNA and protien in prokaryotes

Centrioles

An organelle that helps cells divide or make copies of themselves.

Cytoskeleton

A network of microscopic molecular filaments found in the cytoplasm of all nucleated eukaryotic cells.

tissues

made up of cells which share a similar structure and function.

Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous.

Animals are made up of four basic tissue types:

Epithelial tissue

Closely packed sheets of cells covering surfaces and cavities of the body wall

Connective tissue

It is made up of cells that suspended in an extracellular matrix

Muscle tissue

Muscle fibers contain actin and myosin proteins which allow them to contract

Skeletal muscle

striated-striped muscle

Smooth muscle

Found in blood vessel walls, digestive tract walls, uterus, urinary bladder and various other internal structures

Cardiac muscle

Found in the walls of the heart Striated but not voluntary Individual fibers are bound by intercalated disks, allowing them to contract synchronously

Nervous tissue

Involved in the collection and transmitting of information through detecting stimuli—external & internal signals

Neurons/Nerve cells

Main functioning structure Generate electrical signals, nerve impulses/action potentials, that allow neurons to transmit information quickly

Glia

Promote neuronal activity

dermal, vascular, and ground tissue.

Plants are made up of what tissue?

Dermal tissue

Covers and protects the plant and monitors exchange of gases and absorption of water in roots

Vascular tissue

Transports water, minerals, and sugars into different parts of the plant

Ground tissue

Perform different functions depending on the type and position of the cells in the plant

Microvilli

brush/striated border Finger-like cytoplasmic extensions of the apical surface which increase surface area for absorption Numerous and often regularly arranged and found in absorptive epithelia

Cilia

Short hair-like structures Core is composed of microtubules arranged in a specific manner and each cilium is connected to a basal body and extends from a free surface Function: movement/motility, beats in coordinated rhythmical wave-like manner

Flagella

Same axial structure with cilia but longer Function: movement Present in the tail of spermatozoa

Basal Infoldings

Support the epithelium and functions as passive molecular sieve or ultrafilter Present also in mitochondria that suggests active transport is occuring

Tight Junctions

Intercellular adhesion complexes in epithelia and endothelia that control paracellular permeability

Phospholipid bilayer

two-layer of phospholipid oriented in opposite direction

fatty acids

phosphate group: head - _______: tails

glycerol molecule

It is bonded to a phosphate “head” group and two fatty-acid “tails”

phylic [water-loving] (Polar)

the phospate head is hydro___

phobic [water-hating] (non-polar)

the tail end of phospate is hydro_____

amphiphilic/amphiphatic

Since phospholipid molecule is comprised of two different ends it is called ___

selective permeability

it pertains to allowing only certain substances to pass through the phospholipid bilayer because of its hydrophobic middle portion

Alcohol and Phosphate

The head of a phopholipid bulayer is made of ____ and ______

lipids

The phospholipid tail are chains of

location and function

Proteins can further be classified based on _______ and _______

Integral Proteins

also known as intrinsic proteins that are embedded entirely in the lipid bilayer

Peripheral Proteins

they are attached to either inner or outer layer of the phospholipid bilayer.

Ion Channels

a very narrow tube-shaped protein that help establish a tiny pore in the cell membrane

Transporter or Carrier Proteins.

They are embedded in the cell membrane to help transport too large molecules such as glucose and amino acids to go through ion channels across the membrane

Enzymes

they are are chemicals that catalyze and causes chemical reactions to occur.

receptor cite proteins

The purpose of these receptor sites is to help cells communicate with their external environment through the use of hormones, neurotransmitters, and other signaling molecules

Recognition sites

they are also known as cell identity markers. these are glycoproteins. Glyco means carbohydrates so these are proteins with carbohydrates attached to them.

Cholesterol

It helps the cell membrane maintain the appropriate level of fluidity by managing the space between phospholipids.

The Fluid Mosaic Model

The cell membrane is described as this because the structure of the membrane is flexible and fluid rather than a rigid solid barrier.

glycoprotein

Some of the membrane proteins have carbohydrate attached called _________________, help cells to recognize each other and certain molecules.

glycolipids, recognition

There are also carbohydrates attached to lipids called ______________ that are involve in cell to cell _________________.

glycolipids and glycoproteins

They are involved in cell to cell recognition

passive transport

The most direct forms of membrane transport are

diffusion

substances simply move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Passive transport

It is a naturally-occurring phenomenon and does not require the cell to exert any of its energy to accomplish the movement

concentration gradient

the difference in concentration of a substance across a space, solutes are more concentrated in one region than in a neighboring region.

dynamic equilibrium

It happens when as the solute moves, the gradient disappears but the substances are still moving.

Concentration gradient

The greater the difference in concentration, the faster the molecules will go down the concentration gradient, hence more rapid diffusion.

Temperature

Higher temperatures increase the energy and therefore the movement of the molecules, increasing the rate of diffusion. Lower temperatures decrease the energy of the molecules, thus decreasing the rate of diffusion.

Mass of Particles

Heavier molecules move more slowly; therefore, they diffuse more slowly. The reverse is true for lighter molecules.

Solvent Properties

The denser or viscous the medium is, the harder it is for the given particle to diffuse through it.

Simple diffusion

passive transport without the use of transport proteins.

Facilitated Diffusion

passive transport with the help of membrane proteins

from area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

In passive transport, molecules move ____

simple diffusion

The type of transport used to move oxygen and carbon dioxide across the cell membrane is

osmosis

a special type of diffusion, wherein water molecules pass in a selectively permeable membrane.

osmotic pressure

The pressure that causes the water to diffused through selectively permeable membranes is called

isotonic solution

a solution where the water movement is balanced between the inside of the cell and the outside of the cell.

hypertonic solution

a solution where the solute concentration is higher outside the red blood cells than inside

hypotonic solution

the solute concentration is lower outside the red blood cell than inside.

Turgor pressure

also called the hydrostatic pressure is the resulting force of water against the cell wall. This prevents the further net intake of water.

plasmolysis

happens when the cytoplasm has shrunk and pulled away from the cell wall.

active transport

In an ________, a cell uses transport protein to move a substance against its concentration gradient—from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration

uniporters

if they transport a single type of molecule or ion

symporters

if they transport two molecules or ions in the same direction

antiporters

if they transport two molecules or ions in the opposite directions

membrane potential

a difference in the electrical potential (voltage) across their cell membrane.

antiport

A sodium potassium pump is a type of _______

k+

Na+ is the most plentiful positively charged ion outside the cell, while ____ is the most plentiful inside.

sodium-potassium pump

One of the most important pumps in animal cells is the

Na out, K in

sodium pottasium pump moves ___ out of the cellsm and ___ in

transport vesicle

a small sac that can pinch off or fuse with a cell membrane.

endocytosis

in it, cell membrane engulfs fluids or large molecules to bring them into the cell.

phagocytosis, pinocytosis, reception-mediated endocytosis

3 variations of endocytosis

phagocytosis (Gr. phagein -to eat, cyto -cell) -“cell eating”

It is the process by which large particles, such as cells or relatively large particles, are taken in by a cell

inocytosis (Gr. pinein -to drink, cyto -cell) ““cell drinking”

a process that takes in molecules, including water, which the cell needs from the extracellular fluid

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

a form of endocytosis in which receptor proteins on the cell surface are used to capture a specific target molecule.

Exocytosis (“exo” -outside)

a form of bulk transport in which materials are transported from the inside to the outside of the cell in membrane bound vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane

p53 (Tumor Suppressor Gene)

this gene is responsible in suppressing tumors

Kinases

enzymes that combine phosphate groups to other molecules like sugars and proteins.

Cyclins

It serves an activating protein that bind to a kinase to form Cdk complex.

Cyclin-Dependent Kinases

are kinases which either activates or deactivates another protein through phosphorylating them. It gives the ‘stop’ and ‘go’ signal at the Gap 1 and Gap 2 checkpoints.

diploid

The result of mitosis is two ___ daughter cells.

2n = 46 chromosomes

diploid

n = 23 chromosomes

haploid

Stem Cells

These are cells that are like clay that is ready to be molded to get a specific shape.

Cancer

cells that don’t stop dividing and growing even if there is already enough of them in an area. As a result, it would create a lump that could get bigger.

neurodegeneration

it is a progressive damage in nerve cells

Alzheimer’s Disease

the most widespread and known degenerative disease and is characterized by memory loss.

Huntington’s disease

it is an inherited disorder characterized by neuronal dysfunction and degeneration in striatum and cerebral cortex.

Parkinson’s disease

It is also about cell deaths but targeting those neurons responsible for movements.

four

Meiosis produces _____ daughter cells that are distinct to each other and from the parent cell

chiasma

The point at which paired chromosomes remain in contact

Gametogenesis (production of gametes)

a process where a diploid (2n) cell undergoes a meiotic cell division to become haploid sex cells.

Spermatogenesis

the production of millions of spermatozoa (commonly known as sperms) each day through meiosis from primordial germ cells.

testis [seminiferous tubules]

the organ involved in spermatogenesis

Oogenesis

the production of female gametes (ova) within ovaries (sometimes it happens in the oviduct)

ANEUPLOIDY

it is the abnormality in the number of chromosomes; either there is too much or too few.

EXCESSIVE CHROMOSOMES (AUTOSOMES)

his means that there is an excessive copy of chromosome (normally it is a pair (2) but in these cases, there are 3 chromosomes)

TRISOMY 21

commonly called as Down Syndrome. From the name itself, it implies that there is an excess chromosome in chromosome 21. They have a total of 47 chromosomes instead of 46

NONDISJUNCTION (SEX CHROMOSOMES)

occurs when pairs of homologous chromosomes or the sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase I or anaphase II (rare in mitosis)

KLINEFELTER SYNDROME

has 47 chromosomes because there is a pair of X chromosome instead of just 1. It is presented as XXY and usually happens to males.

XYY SYNDROME

has 47 chromosomes, just like Klinefelter, but this is because there is a pair of Y chromosome instead of just 1.

TRISOMY X (TRIPLE X Syndrome)

has 47 chromosomes and this time there are three X chromosome and no Y chromosome. This happens in female humans.

MONOSOMY X (TURNER’S SYNDROME)

has 45 chromosomes because there is no Y chromosome. They are genetically female, but they do not mature sexually during puberty.

Eukaryotic Cell

- multicellular - found in plants, animals, fungi, protists - reproduce through mitosis - linear DNA structure - sexual reproduction - Contains organelles enclosed in membranes (Golgi Body and endoplasmic reticulum) - store their DNA as chromosomes within the nucleus

Prokaryotic Cell

- unicellular - found in bacteria - reproduce through binary fission - circular DNA structure - rigid cell wall from glycoproteins (Murein) - asexual reproduction - Lack membrane-bound organelles - Lack membrane-bound nucleus - Nucleoid: cytoplasm area where majority of their DNA is in a chromosome-like

Cell compartmentalization

is the process of selectively permeable nuclear envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from that of the cytoplasm