UNH Anatomy Exam 1 CH 1, 2, 3

Integumentary System

Organs: Skin, hair, sweat glands, nails Functions: Protects against environmental hazards Helps regulate body temp Provides sensory info

Skeletal System

Organs: Bones, cartilage, assoc ligaments, bone marrow Functions: Provides support and protection for other tissues Stores calcium and other minerals Forms blood cells

Muscular System

Organs: Skeletal muscles and assoc tendons Functions: Provides movement Provides protection and support for other tissues Generates hear that maintains body temp

Nervous System

Organs: Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs Functions: Directs immediate responses to stimuli Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems Provides and interprets sensory info about external conditions

Endocrine System

Organs: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads, endocrine tissues in other systems Functions: Directs long term changes in the activities of other systems Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body Controls many structural and functional changes during development

Cardiovascular System

Organs: Heart, Blood, Blood Vessels Functions: Dist. blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide Dist. heat and assists in control of body temp

Lymphatic System

Organs: Spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils Functions: Defends against infection and disease Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

Respiratory System

Organs: Nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli Functions: Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs) Provides oxygen to bloodstream Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream Produces sounds for communication

Digestive System

Organs: Teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, sm and large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas Functions: Processes and digests food Absorbs and conserves water Absorbs nutrients Stores energy reserves

Urinary System

Organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra Functions: Excretes waste products from the blood Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

Male Reproductive

Organs: testes, epididymis, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, scrotum Functions: Produces male sex cells (sperm), seminal fluids, and hormones Sexual intercourse

Female Reproductive

Organs: Ovaries, uterus, uterine tubes, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands Functions: Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery Provides milk to nourish newborn infant Sexual intercourse

Anatomy

The study of internal and external body structures and their physical relationships among other body parts

Physiology

The study of how living organisms perform their functions. Biochem, bio, chem, genetics

The principle of complementarity of structure and function

All specific functions are performed by specific structures and the form of a structure relates to its function

Gross Anatomy

(Macroscopic Anatomy) Involves examining relatively large structures- no microscope- dissecting

Surface Anatomy

Type of gross anatomy- the study of general form and superficial markings. exterior features

Regional Anatomy

Type of gross- focuses on the anatomical organization of specific areas of the body (head, neck, trunk)

Systemic Anatomy

Type of Gross- study of the structure of organ systems (groups of organs that function together in a coordinated manner) ex. muscular system, cardiovascular system

Clinical Anatomy

Type of gross- Includes a # of sub specialties important in clinical practice ex. Pathological anatomy: anatomical features that change during illness, radiographic anatomy: anatomical structures seen using specialized imaging techniques, surgical anatomy: anatomical landmarks important in surgery

Developmental Anatomy

Type of gross- describes the changes in form that take place between conception and adulthood.

Microscopic Anatomy

Deals w structures that we cant see without magnification. Cells and molecules

Cytology

Type of microscopic- the study of the internal structure of individual cells.

Cells

The simplest units of life. made up of chem substances in various combinations. Lives depend on chem processes taking place in trill. of cells in body. Groups of atoms, molecules, and organelles

Histology

Type of microscopic- Examination of tissues and structures

Tissues

Groups of specialized cells and cell products that work together to perform specific functions

Organs

Combined tissues- Heart, kidney, liver.

Human Physiology

Study of the functions or workings of human body. More difficult to examine than anatomical structures

Cell Physiology

Study of functions of cells. looks at events involving atoms and molecules important to life. Chem processes within cells as well as chem interactions among cells

Organ Physiology

Study of the functions of specific organs.

Systemic Physiology

Includes all aspects of the functioning of specific organ systems

Pathological Physiology

Study of the effects of diseases on organ functions or system functions

Signs

An objective disease indication (fever)

Symptoms

A subjective disease indication (tiredness)

Scientific Method

A system of advancing knowledge that begins by proposing a hypothesis to answer a question- testing that hypothesis w data collected thru observation and experimentation

Chemical (Molecular) Level

Atoms: Smallest stable units of matter. Can combine to form molecules w complex shapes. Anatomic components and 3D shape of molecule determine its function. Molecule=group of atoms working together

Cellular Level

Cells: Smallest living units in the body. complex molecules form various types of larger structures called organelles. Ea organelle has specific function in cell.

Tissue Level

Tissue: group of cells working together to perform one or more specific functions.

Organ Level

Organs: made of two or more tissues working together to perform specific functions.

Organ System Level

Organ System: Group of organs interacting to perform particular function. Humans have 11

Organism Level

Organism: Human- highest level of organization that we consider. All body systems must work together to maintain the life and health of the organism

Homeostasis

All body systems working together to maintain Existence of a stable internal environment. Vital to organisms survival, failure leads to illness/ death. Goal to physiological regulation

Homeostatic regulation

The adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis

Autoregulation (intrinsic)

Automatic Process that occurs when a cell, tissue, organ, or organ system adjusts in response to some environmental change

Extrinsic Regulation

Process that results from the activities of the nervous system or endocrine system.Organ systems detect an environmental change and send electrical signal (nervous sys-more rapid) or chemical messenger (endocrine sys- slower) to control or adjust the activities of another or many other systems simultaneously

Hormones

Chem messengers sent into blood stream by endocrine system.

Receptor

Sensor that is sensitive to a particular stimulus or environmental change. Receives stimulus

Control Center

Receives and processes info supplied by receptor and sends out commands.

Effector

Cell/organ that responds to commands of control center and whose activity either opposes / enhances stimulus. Carries out instructions

Set point

Desired value. Control center keeps within reasonable limits. Effector helps get there.

Negative Feedback

Effector activated by the control center opposes/ negates the original stimulus. Minimizes change. Normal range is achieved

Positive Feedback

Produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the original change in conditions rather than opposing it. Extreme responses- speed up processes. Moved away from homeostasis, normal range is lost.

Thermoregulation

Control of body temp. Relationship between heat loss (body surface) and heat production (all active tissues) is altered Body temp can vary due to changes in the set point or small fluctuations around the set point

Positive Feedback Loop

Typically found when a potentially dangerous/stressful process must be completed quickly to restore homeostasis

Disease

Organ systems malfunction due to infection, injury, or genetic abnormality in which effects are so severe that homeostatic mechanisms cannot fully compensate for them so one or more variables are pushed outside their normal range of values

State of equilibrium

Opposing processes or forces are in balance

Dynamic Equilibrium

Maintaining a state of equilibrium that keeps vital conditions within a normal range of values. Systems are continually adapting and adjusting to changing conditions

Superficial Anatomy

Involves locating structures on or near the body surface

Anatomical Landmarks

Structures that can be felt or palpated

Anatomical Regions

Specific areas used for reference purposes (quadrants and regions)

Anatomical Position

Hands at sides palms forward feet together standing

Anterior(ventral) view

Shows body from the front

Posterior(dorsal) view

Shows body from the back

Supine

Person lying down in anatomical position face up

Prone

Person lying down in anatomical position face down

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

formed by pair of imaginary perpendicular lines that intersect at umbilicus (navel) Right upper Left upper Right lower left lower

Abdominopelvic regions

More precise. (9) right hypochondriac-epigastric-left hypochondriac right lumbar-umbillical-left lumar right inguinal-hypogastric(pubic)-left inguinal

Proximal

Toward the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk

Distal

Away from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk

Lateral

Away from midline

Medial

Toward midline

Caudal

Toward tail (coccyx)

Cranial/ cephalic

Toward head

Superficial

At, near, or relatively close to body surface

Deep

Toward interior of body, farther from surface

Sectional Planes

(3) Plane=3D axis, section= single view or slice alone one of the planes

Transverse

Plane: Divides body into superior and inferior (top and bottom)- perpendicular to long axis Section: cut in this plane-cross section.

Frontal (coronal)

Oriented parallel to long axis. separates anterior and posterior (front and back)

Sagittal

Oriented parallel to long axis. Separated right and left portions. midsagittal- plane passes through midline, equal sides parasagittal- misses midline. unequal sides

Body cavities

Closed, fluid filled, lined by thin tissue layer called serous membrane/serosa. internal regions Protect delicate organs from shocks and impacts permit significant changes in size and shape of internal organs

Ventral Cavity

(coelom) DIvided by diaphragm. Thoracic abdominopelvic

Thoracic cavity

Pleural cavity- sep into left and right by mediastinum. right and left lungs. serous membrane lining=pleura Pericardial-sm chamber surrounds heart. serous membrane=pericardium

Abdominopelvic

Peritoneal-serous membrane= peritoneum Abdominal- (superior) extends from inferior surface of diaphragm to level of superior margins of pelvis. liver, stomach, spleen, sm intestine, most of large intestine (retroperitoneal- between peritoneal lining and muscular wall of abdominal cavity) Pelvic- inferior to abdominal. urinary bladder, reproductive organs and distal portion of lrg intestine, rectum (infraperitoneal- extend inferior to peritoneal cavity)

Diaphragm

Flat muscular sheet. Separates anatomical regions

Mediastinum

Large mass of connective tissue that surrounds, stabilizes, and supports esophagus, trachea, thymus, and major blood vessels that originate or end at heart. Upper- filled w blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, thymus Lower- pericardial cavity: heart

Viscera

Internal organs that are enclosed by cavities. delicate serous membrane lines walls of internal cavities and covers surfaces of viscers

Serous fluid

Watery fluid, moistens serous membranes, coats opposing surfaces, and reduces friction

Visceral serosa

Portion of serous membrane that covers visceral organ

Parietal serosa

Lines inner surface of body wall or chamber/cavity

Chemistry

Science of change

Matter

Anything that takes up space and has mass. Made up of atoms. Atoms join together to form chem w diff characteristics Chem characteristics det physiology at molecular and chem levels

Mass

Amount of material in matter. Physical property that determines weight in Earth's gravitational field

Subatomic Particles

Compose atoms

Protons

Positive charge. 1 mass unit. In nucleus

Neutron

Neutral charge. 1 mass unit. In nucleus

Electron

Negative charge. Low mass. Located in electron cloud. Attracted to proton.

Mass # of atom

Protons + neutrons

Atomic Number

Number of protons

Electron cloud

Dimensions determine the overall size of atom. Electrons determine reactivity of the atom. Contains shells/ energy levels that hold max # of electrons. lower shells fill first. first one=2. Outermost=valence shell-determines bonding. # electrons per shell corresp to # of atoms in that row of the periodic table

Elements

Pure substance composed of atoms of only one kind. Determined by the atomic # of an atom. Most basic chemicals. Cannot be changed or broken down into simpler substances in chemical reactions

Isotopes

Specific version of an element based on its mass #. Different isotopes of the same element have diff # of neutrons

Radioisotope

Unstable isotopes. Spontaneously break down (radioactive decay) and give off subatomic particles/radiation in measurable amounts

Half Life

Decay rate of radioisotope. The time required for 1/2 of a given amount of the isotope to decay

Chemical Bonds

Involve the sharing, gaining, and losing electrons in the valence shell. Hold participating atoms together once the reaction has ended. New chemical entities called molecules and compounds are created

Inert

Do not readily participate in chemical processes. (inert gases- atoms do not react w one another and do not combine w atoms of other elements- they have filled outermost energy levels)

Molecule

Refers to any chem structure consisting of atoms held together by shared electrons. strong bonds

Compounds

Two or more atoms of diff elements joined by strong or weak bonds

Ion

Atom/ group of atoms that has an electric charge (pos or neg) Un= # of protons and electrons. Atoms become ions by gaining or losing electrons

Cation

Ions w pos charge

Anion

Ions w neg charge

Ionic Bonds

Chem bonds created by the electrical attraction between cations and anions -One atom- electron donor- loses one or more electrons and becomes cation w pos charge -Another atom-electron acceptor- gains those same electrons and becomes anion w neg charge -Attraction between opposite charges then draws the two ions together links fully charged

Covalent Bonds

Sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms Very strong- shared electrons hold atoms together -1 electron is donated by each atom to make the pair of electrons -Sharing one pair of electrons is a single covalent bond -Sharing two pairs of electrons is a double covalent bond -Sharing three pairs of electrons is a triple covalent bond

Non polar covalent

Involve equal sharing of electrons bc atoms involved in the bond have = pull for the electrons (non polar- no pos or neg ends)

Polar covalent

Involve the unequal sharing of electrons because one of the atoms involved in the bond has a disproportionately strong pull on the electrons (water)

Hydrogen Bonds

Weak Bonds between adjacent molecules not atoms Involve slightly pos and slightly neg portions of polar molecules being attracted to one another hydrogen bonds between h2o molecules cause surface tension links partially charged

Solids

Constant volume and shape

Liquid

Constant volume but changes shape

Gas

Changes volume and shape. can be compressed or expanded

Chemical Reaction

New chem bonds form between atoms or existing bonds between atoms are broken. Can't start without help.

Reactants

Materials going into reaction. Reacting substances

Products

Materials coming out of a reaction

Metabolism

All of the reactions that are occurring at one time

Work

Movement of an object or a change in the physical structure of matter

Energy

The capacity to do work. Movement or physical change cannot take place without. Cannot be destroyed, only converted from one form to another

Kinetic Energy

Energy of motion. can be transferred to another object and do work

Potential Energy

Stored energy. has the potential to do work. may derive from an objects position or from phys or chem structure

Chemical Energy

Potential energy stored in chem bonds

Decomposition Reaction(catabolism)

breaks a molecule into smaller fragments (AB->A+B) take place inside/outside cells Hydrolysis- one of the bonds in a complex molecule is broken and the components of a water molecule are added to the resulting fragments (A-B+H2O->A-H+HO-B)

Synthesis Reaction(Anabolism)

Assembles smaller molecules into larger molecules. Uphill process bc it takes energy to create chem bond. Forms chem bonds (A+B->AB) Dehydration Synthesis(condensation reaction)- (A-H+HO-B->A-B+H2O)

Exchange Reaction

Involves decomposition first then synthesis. parts of reacting molecules are shuffled around to produce new products. (AB+CD->AD+CB) reactants and products contain same components., but those are present in diff combinations.

Reversible reaction

(A+B<->AB) At equilibrium the amounts of chemicals do not change even tho the reactions are still occurring. Seek equilibrium, balancing opposing reaction rates. Add/remove reactants- reaction rates adjust to reach a new equilibrium

Activation Energy

The amount of energy required to start a reaction- activate reactants.

Enzymes

Protein catalysts that lower the activation energy of reactions- promote chemical reactions catalysts- compounds that speed up chem reactions without themselves being permanently changed or consumed

Exergonic (exothermic)

Amount of energy released is greater than the activation energy needed to start the reaction, so release energy. (exo-outside, ergon-work) Produce more E than use

Endergonic (Endothermic)

More energy required to begin reaction than is released, reaction as a whole will absorb energy (endo-inside) Use more E than use

Nutrients

Essential molecules obtained from food Carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water

Metabolites

Substances involved in/byproduct of metabolism. Made or broken down in body

Inorganic Compounds

Not based on carbon/hydrogen -carbon dioxide, byproduct of cell metabolism -oxygen, atmospheric gas required in important metabolic reactions -water, accounts for most of body weight (2/3) -inorganic acids, bases, salts- compounds held together partially/completely by ionic bonds

Organic Compounds

Always contain carbon/hydrogen -carbs, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids

Soluble

Will dissolve/break up in water

Solution

Uniform mixture of two or more substances

Solvent

Liquid in which other atoms, ions, or molecules are dist.

Solute

Dissolved substance- indiv dispersed

Reactivity

Most body chem occurs in water

High Heat capacity

Heat capacity- the quantity of heat required to raise the temp of a unit mass of a substance 1C Water is high bc water molecules in liquid state are attracted to one another thru hydrogen bonding Consequences= temp of water must be high before all H bonds broken between indiv water molecules and have enough E to break free and become water vapor(gas). carries a lot of heat away w it when it changes liq->gas. Large amt of heat E is required to change the temp of 1g of water by 1C so large mass of water changes temp slowly (thermal inertia)

Thermal inertia

Helps stabilize body temp bc water accounts for up to 2/3 body weight

Lubrication

Effective lubricant bc little friction between water molecules. Even thin layer will greatly reduce friction between.