PY 302 Ch. 1

psychological disorder

a psychological dysfunction within an individual associated with distress or impairment in functioning and a response that is not typical or culturally expected

phobia

a psychological disorder characterized by marked and persistent fear of an object or situation

abnormal behavior

a psychological dysfunction within an individual that is associated with distress or impairment in functioning and a response that is not typical or culturally expected

psychological dysfunction

a breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning

impairment

criterion for psychological dysfunction; damage that results in a reduction of strength or quality

atypical or not culturally expected

criterion for psychological dysfunction; deviation from average, not enough to classify as dysfunction, may even be called eccentric or talented

psychopathology

the scientific study of psychological disorders

clinical and counseling psychologists

receive the Ph.D., doctor of philosophy, degree and follow a course of graduate-level study lasting approximately 5 years, which prepares them to conduct research into the causes and treatment of psychological disorders and to diagnose, assess, and treat these disorders

psychiatrists

first earn an M.D. degree in medical school and then specialize in psychiatry during residency training that lasts 3 to 4 year

psychiatric social workers

typically earn a master’s degree in social work as they develop expertise in collecting information relevant to the social and family situation of the individual with a psychological disorder

psychiatric nurses

have advanced degrees, such as a master’s or even a Ph.D., and specialize in the care and treatment of patients with psychological disorders, usually in hospitals as part of a treatment team

marriage & family therapists and mental health counselors

typically spend 1 to 2 years earning a master’s degree and are employed to provide clinical services by hospitals or clinics, usually under the supervision of a doctoral-level clinician

scientist-practitioners

mental health professionals that take a scientific approach to their clinical work

presenting problem

term used in hospitals and clinics for most prevalent problem/problems

clinical description

represents the unique combination of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that make up a specific disorder

clinical

refers to both the types of problems or disorders that you would find in a clinic or hospital and to the activities connected with assessment and treatment

prevalence

how many people in a population have a certain disorder

incidence

statistics on how many new cases are diagnosed during a given period

sex ratio

what percentage of males and females have a certain disorder

course

individual pattern for mental disorders

chronic course

disorder that tend to last a long time or even a lifetime

episodic course

disorder that the individual is likely to recover within a few months only to suffer a recurrence of the disorder at a later time

time-limited course

disorder that will improve without treatment in a relatively short period with little or no risk of recurrence

acute onset

disorder that begins suddenly

insidious onset

disorder that develops gradually over an extended period

prognosis

anticipated course of a disorder

developmental psychology

study of changes in behavior

developmental psychopathology

study of changes in abnormal behavior

life-span developmental psychology

study of abnormal behavior across the entire age span

etiology

the study of origins, has to do with why a disorder begins (what causes it) and includes biological, psychological, and social dimensions

effect

does not necessarily imply the cause

supernatural model

belief that agents outside our bodies and environment influence our behavior, thinking, and emotions (divinities, demons, spirits, or other phenomena such as magnetic fields or the moon or the stars)

soul or psyche

the mind, has been considered separate from the body

biological model

belief that abnormal behavior is a physical disease (body can influence the mind)

psychological model

belief that abnormal behavior is a result of intrapsychic conflict (Freud)

exorcism

treatment in which various religious rituals were performed in an effort to rid the victim of evil spirits

Salem Witch Trials

resulted in hanging deaths of 20 women, rooted in supernatural model

mass hysteria

a condition in which a large group of people exhibit the same state of violent mental agitation

emotion contagion

the experience of an emotion seems to spread to those around us

mob psychology

popular language term for emotion contagion

lunatic

term for mentally disordered; Ancient Greeks speculated that the gravitational effects of the moon on bodily fluids might be a possible cause of mental disorders

Hippocratic Corpus

written between 450 and 350 BC; suggested that psychological disorders could be treated like any other disease

humoral theory

Hippocrates assumed that normal brain functioning was related to four bodily fluids or humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm; imbalance of humors caused mental disorder

melancholy

derived from "black bile," or melancholer; used to describe aspect of depression

sanguine

describes someone who is ruddy in complexion, presumably from copious blood flowing through the body, and cheerful and optimistic, although insomnia and delirium were thought to be caused by excessive blood in the brain

melancholic

depressive (depression was thought to be caused by black bile flooding the brain)

phlegmatic

(from the humor phlegm) indicates apathy and sluggishness but can also mean being calm under stress

choleric

(from yellow bile or choler) is hot tempered

bleeding or bloodletting

a carefully measured amount of blood was removed from the body, often with leeches

hysteria or somatic symptom disorders

the physical symptoms appear to be the result of a medical problem for which no physical cause can be found, such as paralysis and some kinds of blindness; formerly assumed to be only affecting women, presumed from "wandering uterus"

advanced syphilis

a sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacterial microorganism entering the brain, include believing that everyone is plotting against you (delusion of persecution) or that you are God (delusion of grandeur), as well as other bizarre behaviors

psychosis

psychological disorders characterized in part by beliefs that are not based in reality (delusions), perceptions that are not based in reality (hallucinations), or both—researchers recognized that a subgroup of apparently psychotic patients deteriorated steadily, becoming paralyzed and dying within 5 years of onset

general paresis

other name for psychosis; because it had consistent symptoms (presentation) and a consistent course that resulted in death

John P. Gray

most influential psychologist in the biological tradition; editor of American Journal of Insanity, the precursor of the current American Journal of Psychiatry, the flagship publication of the American Psychiatric Association (APA); outlook was that causes of insanity are always physical

insulin shock therapy

insulin was occasionally given to stimulate appetite in psychotic patients who were not eating, but it also seemed to calm them down

neuroleptics

major tranquilizers

benzodiazepines

minor tranquilizers

psychosocial treatment

focuses not only on psychological factors but also on social and cultural ones

moral therapy

included treating institutionalized patients as normally as possible in a setting that encouraged and reinforced normal social interaction, thus providing them with many opportunities for appropriate social and interpersonal contact

mental hygiene movement

mid-19th-century effort to improve care of the mentally disordered by informing the public of their mistreatment

Dorothea Dix

campaigned endlessly for reform in the treatment of insanity; a schoolteacher who had worked in various institutions, she had firsthand knowledge of the deplorable conditions imposed on patients with insanity, and she made it her life’s work to inform the American public and their leaders of these abuses

psychoanalysis

emphasizes exploration of, and insight into, unconscious processes and conflicts; based on Sigmund Freud's elaborate theory of the structure of the mind and the role of unconscious processes in determining behavior

behaviorism

explanation of human behavior, including dysfunction, based on principles of learning and adaptation derived from experimental psychology; associated with John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner, which focuses on how learning and adaptation affect the development of psychopathology

Franz Anton Mesmer

suggested to his patients that their problem was caused by an undetectable fluid found in all living organisms called “animal magnetism,” which could become blocked

Jean-Martin Charcot

head of the Salpétrière Hospital in Paris, where Philippe Pinel had introduced psychological treatments several generations earlier; distinguished neurologist, Charcot demonstrated that some techniques of mesmerism were effective with a number of psychological disorders, and he did much to legitimize the fledgling practice of hypnosis

unconscious

part of the psychic makeup that is outside the awareness of the person

catharsis

rapid or sudden release of emotional tension thought to be an important factor in psychoanalytic therapy

Josef Breuer

while his patients were in the highly suggestible state of hypnosis, Breuer asked them to describe their problems, conflicts, and fears in as much detail as they could; partnered with Freud

psychoanalytic model

complex and comprehensive theory originally advanced by Sigmund Freud that seeks to account for the development and structure of personality, as well as the origin of abnormal behavior, based primarily on inferred inner entities and forces

id

unconscious psychical entity present at birth representing basic sexual and aggressive drives; conscience; driven by moral principles

ego

psychical entity responsible for finding realistic and practical ways to satisfy id drives; logical, rational; driven by reality principle

superego

psychical entity representing the internalized moral principles of parents and society; illogical, emotional, irrational; driven by pleasure principle

intrapsychic conflicts

the struggles among the id, ego, and superego

defense mechanism

common patterns of behavior, often adaptive coping styles when they occur in moderation, observed in response to particular situations. In psychoanalysis, these are thought to be unconscious processes originating in the ego

displacement

rransfers a feeling about, or a response to, an object that causes discomfort onto another, usually less-threatening, object or person

sublimation

directs potentially maladaptive feelings or impulses into socially acceptable behavior

denial

refuses to acknowledge some aspect of objective reality or subjective experience that is apparent to others

projection

falsely attributes own unacceptable feelings, impulses, or thoughts to another individual or object

rationalization

conceals the true motivations for actions, thoughts, or feelings through elaborate reassuring or self-serving but incorrect explanations

reaction formation

substitutes behavior, thoughts, or feelings that are the direct opposite of unacceptable ones

repression

blocks disturbing wishes, thoughts, or experiences from conscious awareness

psychosexual stages of development

the sequence of phases a person passes through during development. Each stage is named for the location on the body where id gratification is maximal at that time

fixation

if we did not receive appropriate gratification during a specific stage or if a specific stage left a particularly strong impression

Oedipus complex

all young boys relive this fantasy when genital self-stimulation is accompanied by images of sexual interactions with their mothers

castration anxiety

the fear in young boys that they will be mutilated genitally because of their lust for their mothers

Electra complex

young girls wanting to replace her mother and possess her father

penis envy

central to Electra complex; the girl’s desire for a penis, so as to be more like her father and brothers

Anna Freud

daughter of Sigmund Freud; further developed his concept of defense mechanisms

neuroses

obsolete psychodynamic term for psychological disorder thought to result from unconscious conflicts and the anxiety they cause

ego psychology

derived from psychoanalysis, this theory emphasizes the role of the ego in development and attributes psychological disorders to failure of the ego to manage impulses and internal conflicts; also known as self-psychology

object relations

modern development in psychodynamic theory involving the study of how children incorporate the memories and values of people who are close and important to them

collective unconscious

accumulated wisdom of a culture collected and remembered across generations, a psychodynamic concept introduced by Carl Jung

free association

psychoanalytic therapy technique intended to explore threatening material repressed into the unconscious; the patient is instructed to say whatever comes to mind without censoring

dream analysis

psychoanalytic therapy method in which dream contents are examined as symbolic of id impulses and intrapsychic conflicts

psychoanalyst

therapist who practices psychoanalysis after earning either an M.D. or a Ph.D. degree and receiving additional specialized postdoctoral training

tranference

psychoanalytic concept suggesting that clients may seek to relate to the therapist as they do to important authority figures, particularly their parents

countertransference

therapists project some of their own personal issues and feelings, usually positive, onto the patient

psychodynamic psychotherapy

contemporary version of psychoanalysis that still emphasizes unconscious processes and conflicts but is briefer and more focused on specific problems

humanistic psychology

belief that human nature reaches its fullest potential when we contribute to the welfare of other individuals and to society as a whole

self-actualizing

process emphasized in humanistic psychology in which people strive to achieve their highest potential against difficult life experiences

hierarchy of needs

beginning with our most basic physical needs for food and sex and ranging upward to our needs for self-actualization, love, and self-esteem; social needs such as friendship fall somewhere between; Maslow hypothesized that we cannot progress up the hierarchy until we have satisfied the needs at lower levels

Abraham Maslow

most systematic in describing the structure of personality

person-centered therapy

therapy method in which the client, rather than the counselor, primarily directs the course of discussion, seeking self-discovery and self-responsibility

unconditional positive regard

acceptance by the counselor of the client’s feelings and actions without judgment or condemnation

behavioral model

explanation of human behavior, including dysfunction, based on principles of learning and adaptation derived from experimental psychology

classical conditioning

fundamental learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov; an event that automatically elicits a response is paired with another stimulus event that does not (a neutral stimulus); after repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that by itself can elicit the desired response

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural or unlearned response to this stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

no conditions present for the response to occur

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response

extinction

learning process in which a response maintained by reinforcement in operant conditioning or pairing in classical conditioning decreases when that reinforcement or pairing is removed; also the procedure of removing that reinforcement or pairing

introspection

early, nonscientific approach to the study of psychology involving systematic attempts to report thoughts and feelings that specific stimuli evoked

John B. Watson

considered the founder of behaviorism; Little Albert experiment

Ivan Pavlov

initiated the study of classical conditioning, a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a response until it elicits that response

Mary Cover Jones

thought that if fear could be learned or classically conditioned in this way, perhaps it could also be unlearned or extinguished; Little Albert experiment

systematic desensitization

behavioral therapy technique to diminish excessive fears, involving gradual exposure to the feared stimulus paired with a positive coping experience, usually relaxation

behavior therapy

array of therapy methods based on the principles of behavioral and cognitive science, as well as principles of learning as applied to clinical problems. It considers specific behaviors rather than inferred conflicts as legitimate targets for change

BF Skinner

published The Behavior of Organisms, in which he laid out, in a comprehensive manner, the principles of operant conditioning

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior changes as a function of what follows the behavior

Edward L. Thorndike

best known for the law of effect, which states that behavior is either strengthened (likely to be repeated more frequently) or weakened (likely to occur less frequently) depending on the consequences of that behavior

reinforcement

consequences for behavior that strengthen it or increase its frequency; positive reinforcement involves the contingent delivery of a desired consequence; negative reinforcement is the contingent escape from an aversive consequence; unwanted behaviors may result from their reinforcement or the failure to reinforce desired behaviors

shaping

the development of a new response by reinforcing successively more similar versions of that response; both desirable and undesirable behaviors may be learned in this manner

Adolf Meyer

often considered the dean of American psychiatry

Sigmund Freud

created the practice of psychoanalysis; elaborate theory of the structure of the mind and the role of unconscious processes in determining behavior