BIO NOTES!!!

anatomy

The study of body structure and form

Level of human structure

atom molecules organelles cells tissues organs organ systems organism

integumentary system

skin, hair, nails; protection

skeletal system

bones, cartilage; support and movement

Muscular System

skeletal muscles; movement and stability

lymphatic system

lymph nodes, vessels; recovery of excess tissue fluid, defense against disease

respiratory system

nose, lungs; oxygen and carbon dioxide

digestive system

intestines, liver; nutrient breakdown and absorption

nervous system

brain, spinal cord, nerves; internal communication

endocrine system

glands; hormone production

circulatory system

heart, blood vessels; distribution of nutrients, oxygen, wastes

urinary system

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra; elimination of wastes

male reproductive system

testes, vesicles, prostate gland; production & delivery of sperm

female reproductive system

ovaries, uterus, mammary glands; production of eggs

anatomical position

standing feet flat arms at sides palms, face, & eyes facing forward

sagittal plane

divides body into left and right

median (midsagittal) plane

Cuts the body into EQUAL left and right planes

parasagittal plane

Divides body into UNEQUAL right and left sides

frontal (coronal) plane

anterior and posterior portions

transverse plane

superior and inferior portions

Anterior

toward the front

posterior

toward the back

ventral

toward the anterior side

dorsal

toward the posterior side

superior

above

inferior

below

cephalic

toward the head

rostral

toward the forehead or nose

caudal

toward the tail or inferior end

medial

Toward the midline of the body

lateral

Away from the midline of the body

proximal

Closer to the point of attachment

distal

away from the point of attachment

ipsilateral

on the same side of the body

contralateral

on the opposite side of the body

superficial

near the surface

deep

away from the surface

axial region

head, neck, trunk

trunk

thoracic and abdominal

4 quadrants

right upper quadrant, left upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left lower quadrant

9 regions

right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right inguinal, hypogastric, left inguinal

appendicular region

shoulder girdle upper limbs pelvic girdle lower limbs

cranial cavity

contains the brain

vertebral canal

contains the spinal cord & enclosed by vertebral column

viscera

internal organs

meninges

three layers of connective tissue in which the brain and spinal cord are wrapped

thoracic cavity

contains heart and lungs

Mediastinum

space between the lungs occupied by heart

pleural cavity

contains the lungs

pericardial cavity

contains the heart

Pericardium

Membrane surrounding the heart

pleura

Membrane surrounding the lungs

abdominopelvic cavity

abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity

abdominal cavity

The superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity

pelvic cavity

inferior to abdominal cavity

gross anatomy

structures of the body that are visible to the naked eye

microscopic anatomy

relies on the use of microscopes

radiologic anatomy

study of the body using x-ray imaging

systematic anatomy

study of the body through different systems

regional anatomy

study of the body through different regions

human variations

situs solitus situs inversus situs perversus

situs solitus

normal arrangement

situs inversus

reversed position of organs

situs perversus

one organ atypically positioned

11 organ systems

integumentary skeletal muscular lymphatic circulatory urinary endocrine digestive nervous male & female reproductive

cytology

study of structure and function of cells

basal surface

bottom

apical surface

top

lateral surface

sides

light microscope

uses visible light to produce an imge

transmission & scanning electron microscope

rely on beams of electrons instead of light

major components of cells

plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

Cytoplasm

cytoskeleton organelles inclusions cytosol

plasma membrane function

controls what comes in and out of the cell

inclusions

stored cellular products

Cytosol (intracellular fluid)

Fluid portion of cytoplasm

extracellular fluid

fluid outside the cell

interstitial fluid

fluid between cells

intracellular face

the side of the plasma membrane that faces the cytoplasm

extracellular face

side that faces outward

phospholipid bilayer

hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

cholesterol function in membrane

stabilizes the membrane; fluidity in membrane

Glycolipids

cell recognition

membrane proteins

integral and peripheral

integral protein

transmembrane protein that passes through membrane

peripheral protein

adheres to either face of membrane

membrane protein functions

receptors enzyme channel/gated channel cell-identity marker cell-adhesion molecule transport protein

receptor protein function

binds to chemical messengers

enzyme protein function

breaks down a chemical messenger and terminates its effect

channel protein function

constantly open & allows solutes to pass in and out cell

Gated channel protein function

opens and closes to allow solutes through at certain times

cell identity marker protein function

distinguishes the body's own cells from foreign cells

cell adhesion protein functions

binds one cell to another

transport proteins

bind to a substance on one side of the membrane & release it on the other side

glycocalyx

barrier between a cell and its surrounding

cellular junctions

link cells together and attach them to the extracellular material

types of junctions

tight junctions desmosomes gap junctions

tight junctions

sealant

desmosomes

resist stress

gap junctions

communication

extensions of cell membrane

microvilli, cilia, flagella

Cytoskeleton components

microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules

nucleus

Control center of the cell - largest organelle - produces ribosomes

nuclear envelope

A double membrane that surrounds the nucleus in the cell

nuclear pores

holes in the nuclear envelope that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus

nucleoplasm

material within the nucleus

Rough ER

ER that is dotted with ribosomes, makes proteins

smooth ER

Makes lipids

Ribosomes

Assembles amino acids to create proteins

Golgi Complex/Apparatus

Sorts, packs, & transports proteins by using vesicles

Golgi vesicles

- become lysosomes - fuses to plasma membrane - become secretory vesicles

mitochondria

makes ATP; cristae, mitochondrial matrix, mitochondrial DNA

Centrioles

made of microtubules arranged in nine groups of 3

Lysosomes

Uses chemicals to break down food and worn out cell parts

Autophagy

when lysosomes break down damaged organelles to be remade

apoptosis

programmed cell death

Peroxisomes

Break down fatty acids and produce hydrogen peroxide

Proteasomes

break down proteins

interphase

G1, S, G2

first gap phase (G1)

cell grows and does normal metabolic roles

synthesis phase (S)

DNA replication

second gap phase (G2)

- growth and preparation for mitosis - DNA proofreading - organelles duplicate

miotic phase (M)

prophase metaphase anaphase telophase

prophase

- chromatin condenses into chromosomes - nuclear envelope disappears - spindle fibers start to form

metaphase

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

anaphase

daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles

telophase

- chromatids at each pole decondense - new nuclear membrane

cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells

4 types of primary tissues

epithelial connective nervous muscular

extracellular matrix

helps cells attach to & communicate with nearby cells

ground substance

fluid or semi-fluid portion of the matrix

epithelial tissue

protection, secretion, & absorption (no blood supply)

simple

one layer

stratified

multiple layers

basement membrane

Cells that lines basal surface

squamous

flattened cells

Cubodial

nucleus in middle

columnar

nucleus elongated

goblet cells

secrete mucus

pseudostratified columnar

looks stratified but every cell touches basement

transitional epithelium

cells are transitioning in shape

connective tissue

supports, binds, & protects organs

connective tissue cells

fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells

fibroblasts

produces fibers that gives connective tissue its strength & ground substance that cells float in

types of connective fibers

collagenous, elastic, reticular

loose connective tissue

areolar, adipose, reticular

dense connective tissue

regular, irregular, elastic

Connective Cartilage

hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

blood

plasma erythrocytes (red blood cells) leukocytes (white blood cells) platelets

spongy bone

arranged in thin rods & plates of bone tissue containing pores

compact bone

arranged in osteons

nervous tissue

neurons and neuroglia

muscular tissue

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

skeletal muscle

- muscle fibers - striations - voluntary

cardiac muscle

- cardiomyocytes - striations - intercalated discs - involuntary

smooth muscle

- fusiform myocytes - non-striated - involuntary

endocrine gland

secretes hormones into blood only

exocrine gland

secrete substances into body surface or into body cavity

eccrine glands

produce sweat

apocrine glands

sweat glands located in axillary

Hyperplasia

cell multiplication

hypertrophy

enlargement of cells

neoplasia

tumor development

differentiation

specialization of form or function

metaplasia

change from one tissue to another

regeneration

replacement of dead cells

fibrosis

scar tissue development

atrophy

reduction in size or number

necrosis

pathological death of tissue

infarction

cut off blood supply

apoptosis

programmed cell death

gangrene

insufficient blood supply

functions of the skin

protection, regulation, and sensation

epidermis

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Epidermal cell types

keratinocytes stem cells melanocytes tactile (merkel) cells dendritic (langerhans) cells

Layers of the epidermis (superficial to deep)

stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale

which layer of skin is ONLY in thick skin

stratum lucidum

dermis

Inner layer of skin

what does the dermis contain

blood vessels cutaneous glands hair follicles arrector muscles nail roots

layers of the dermis

papillary layer (superficial) reticular layer (deep)

hypodermis

the layer of skin beneath the dermis

functions of hypodermis

energy storage thermal insulation connection to deeper tissue

melanin

produced by melanocytes

eumelanin

brownish black pigment

Pheomelanin

reddish-yellow pigment

hemoglobin

red pigment of blood

carotene

yellow-orange pigment

cyanosis

blueness; lack of oxygen

erythema

redness; increased blood flow

pallor

paleness; reduced blood flow

albinism

no pigment; genetic lack of melanin

jaundice

yellow; liver or bilirubin

hematoma

multiple colors; bruise

friction ridges of fingertips

aid in sensitivity to texture and ability to grasp

freckles

flat melanized patches that vary with heredity and exposure to the sun

mole (nevus)

elevated patch of melanized skin

Hemangiomas (birthmarks)

discolored skin caused by benign tumors of capillaries

downy hair (lanugo)

fine, downy, unpigmented hair of fetus

vellus hair

fine, unpigmented body hair of children and adult females

terminal hair

coarse pigmented hair

3 zones of hair length

bulb, root, shaft

layers to hair

medulla, cortex, cuticle

layers of hair follicle

epithelial root sheath and connective tissue root sheath

hair receptors

nerve fibers that respond to hair's movement

arrector pili

smooth muscle that causes goose bumps

nails

composed of thin, dead, scaly cells w/ rows of keratin

nail structure

nail plate, nail fold, nail bed

hyponchium

secures nail to nail bed

eponychium

cuticle

sweat glands

apocrine and eccrine

apocrine glands

ducts open into hair follicle & produces sweat w/ fat molecules

eccrine glands

simple ducts lead to pores at skin surface & produces water perspiration to cool body

sebaceous glands

- secretes sebum - open into hair follicle - located in der