AP Psychology Chapter 3

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

dendrite

the bush, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons` - provide structural support - supply nourishment to neurons - insulation to axons and other cells - Help remove neurons’ waste products - Play role in development of nervous system in human embryo - May also send and receive signals

Glia disorders

- Dysfunction in glia cells may contribute to cognitiv impairment seen in schizo. Disorders + some forms of depressive disorders - Degeneration of glial tissue may lead to alzheimers - Key factor in chronic pain

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly grater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

cell body (soma)

contains nucleus, DNA, RNA, info that makes that cell what it is

terminal branches of axon

form junctions with other cells

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and he dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's re-absorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure - Agonist: opiate dugs (morphine + heroin) - runner's high

acetylcholine (ACh)

neurotransmitter that enables inv. muscle action, learning, arousal, and memory - excitatory - Agonst: nicotine - can produce excitatory + inhibitory

ACh producing neurons

Alzheimer's disease - associated with a deterioration of . . . ?

Dopamine (DA)

neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement - Low levels = Parkinson's Disease - High Levels = Schizophrenia

dopamine receptor

schizophrenia is associated with an excess of this neurotransmitter's receptors

dopamine

under-supply associated brain produced tremors and decreased mobility associated with Parkinson's disease

serotonin

neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal - Abnormal levels may contribute to OCD + depression - Agonist: LSD - reuptake after serotonin is in synapse

serotonin

under-supply associated with depression, Prozac raises level

Norepinephrine

neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal

GABA + glycine

(neurotransmitter) depress/inhibit neural firing/central nervous system - agonist: Valium, anti-anxiety drugs + alcohol

GABA agnosts

Valium, anti-anxiety drugs + alcohol

agonist

molecule similar enough to a neurotransmitter to bind to its receptor and mimic its effects

antagonist

molecule similar enough to a neurotransmitter to bind to its receptor and block the neurotransmitter's functioning

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. Made up of nerves that lie outside brain + spinal cord

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

somatic nervous system

made up of nerves that controls the voluntary movements of skeletal muscles - carry commands from CNS to muscles

autonomic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs: heart, blood vessles, smooth muscles, glands - controlled by CNS - Controls automatic, involuntary, visceral functions - Two branches: sympathetic + parasympathtic - fight or flight

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a part of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary glands

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

lesion

tissue destruction; in the brain, a naturally or experimental caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

CT scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of 3d brain. Portrays only structure Benefits: - reasonable - sees structure and what's phsycially wrong w/ brain disadvantages - exposed to a lot fo x rays - drink contrast for scan --> some people can't tolerate that

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissues. Scans show brain structure benefits: - more in-depth + clearer than ct

fMRI

measures mvmt of blood molecules (index of neural acivity). Shows structure + function

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull. Responsible for automatic survival functions

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

thalamus

relay station for sensory info - All of sensory info except smell → goes from sense organ → through thalamus

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

limbic system

the overall system of the brain that regulates emotions and controls behavior. Includes the Hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and other structures. Donut-shaped neural system located below the cerebral hemisphere; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion --> specifically fear and anger but others as well

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several body maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward (4 Fs)

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments - Prefrontal Cortex + Motor Cortex + Broca's Area

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; responsible for spacial orientation + touch

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; responsible for visual perception, including colour, form and motion.

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; auditory processing + hearing Primary Auditory Cortex + Wernicke's Area

motor cortex

mvmt of muscles frontal lobe

sensory cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Wernicke's area

controls language comprehension Temporal lobe

Broca's area

left frontal lobe production of speech

visual cortex

interpreting incoming visual information

brain plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience --> neural reorgininzation

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

large bind of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

chromosomes

threadlike strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information

DNA

a complex molecular containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes and serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Terminal Buttons

small knobs that secrete neurotransmitters

Synaptic vesicles

store various neurotransmitters

absolute refractory period

min length of time after an action potential, during which another action potential/ impulse can not occur. After firing Action potential --> channels close up + time is needed before they are ready to open up again

all or none law

a neuron either fires or it doesnt

Presynaptic neuron

neuron that sends a signal across the gap

postsynaptic neuron

neuron that recieves a signal

postsynaptic potential

Graded (vary in size) and inc/dec the prob of a neural impulse being fired in the receiving cell in prop. to amnt of voltage change. Do not follow all-or-none law

Inhibitory PSP

- stop action potentials - negative voltage shift - Dec likelihood that postsynaptic neuron will fire AP

Excitatory PSP

- if it locks on → going to excite future cells + lots of more action potentials will happen → keep sending messages - positive voltage shift - Inc likelihood that postsynaptic neuron will fire AP

synaptic pruning

brain eliminates extra synapses. cause neural restructuring that very likely has important consequences for normal and abnormal brain function

Norepinephrine (NE)

- excitatory - Contributes to mood + arousal - Cocaine elevates activity in NE synapse - People who suffer from depression appear to have lower levels of NE - Can produce excitatory or inhibitory effects at virtually all synapses

Sympathetic Division

mobilizes body’s resources for emergencies - creates fight or flight - release of hormones that ready body for exertion

parasympathetic Division

conserves bodily resources - Activates processes that allow body to save + store energy

Fight or flight

afferent nerves

axons that carry fiber info outward from body to CNS

efferent nerves

axons that carry info outward from CNS to periphery of body

spinal cord

- Connects brain to rest of body through PNS - Houses bundles of axons that carry brain’s commands to - Most forms of paralysis result from spinal cord damage - Transmit signals from brain to neurons that signal body’s muscles to move

cerebrospinal fluid

nourishes the brain + provides protective cushion for it - To enter: substances in blood have to cross blood-brain barrier - semipermeable membrane taht stops some chemicals from leaving bloodstream to enter brain

electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)

sending weak electrical current into brain to stimulate/activate it

James Olds' research on pleasure centers

- investigating whether rats might be made uncomfortable by electrical stimulation of certain areas of their brain - electrical current given when rats enter certain part of cage to deter them - rats kept coming back + wanted to get shocked

hindbrain

cerebellum, medulla, pons

midbrain

reticular formation

forebrain

cerebrum, cerebral cortex

medulla

responsible for automatic functions

pons

responsible for controlling sleep, dreams, sleep cycle, wakefulness

cerebellum

responsible for balance, fine motor coordination

Cerebrum

largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. Areas within the cerebrum control muscle functions and also control speech, thought, emotions, reading, writing, and learning

cerebral cortex

outermost layer of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities

somatosensory cortex

controls sensory info → only touch

auditory cortex

Involves hearing, speaking, understanding written + verbal words

Prefrontal Cortex

Reasoning, planning, paying attention, getting organises, decision making, impulse control

homunculus brain map

- organized map of the proportional representation of the contralateral somatosensory or motor neurons on the cortex or passing though a part of the brain - as information comes to the brain from different parts of the body, information from the hand will all synapse in this region of the cortex

mirror neurons

use to incorporate info about body language, social cues, etc.

left hemisphere

- controls the right half of the body - Language - written and spoken - Simple math - Logical + analytical

right hemisphere

- Controls left side of body - Non verbal expressions - body language, facial expressions - Spacial skills - Holistic thinking

Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga’s split brain research

- Sperry found that severing the corpus callosum of those animals had affected their behavior and cognitive functioning - conducted extensive experiments on an epileptic patient who had had his corpus collosum split --> connection was severed - studies demonstrated that the left and right hemispheres are specialized in different tasks

oxytocin

hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland (hypothalamus); stimulates contractions of the uterus and ejection of milk

pineal gland

- a small endocrine gland in the brain - receive information about the state of the light-dark cycle from the environment and convey this information to produce and secrete the hormone melatonin

thyroid gland

endocrine gland that controls your body's metabolism and how fast heart beats --> releases two hormones

adrenal gland

- In times of stress, hypothalamus sends signals along two pathways—through the autonomic nervous system and through the pituitary gland—to the adrenal glands - In response, the adrenal glands secrete hormones that radiate throughout the body, preparing it to cope with an emergency

gonads (ovary, testis)

reproductive gland that produces reproductive cells (gametes). In males the gonads are called testes; the gonads in females are called ovaries.

polygenic traits

characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes

3 most imp methods of studies to assess the impact of heredity

family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies

family studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait - If heredity affects the trait under scrutiny, researchers should find trait similarity among relatives - should find more similarity among relatives who share more genes

twin studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait

monozygotic (identical twins)

emerge when a single fertilized egg splits for unknown reasons - same genetic blueprint - genetic overlap = 100%

dizygotic (Fraternal twins)

result when two separate eggs are fertilized simultaneously - Fraternal twins are no more alike in genetic makeup than any two siblings born to a pair of parents at different times - genetic overlap averages 50%

Adoption studies

assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents

Epigenetics

study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve modifications to the DNA sequence - specific genes’ effects can be dampened by chemical events at the cellular level --> alterations in traits, health, and behavior - can be stimulated by environmental events (stress, diet) - can be passed on to successive generations

Charles Darwin & natural selection

identified natural selection as the engine that fuels the process of evolution

evolutionary psychology

based on the well-documented assumption that a species’ typical patterns of behavior often reflect evolutionary solutions to adaptive problems

fitness

reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population

adaption

an inherited characteristic that increased in a population (through natural selection) because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged

critical period

a limited time span in the development of an organism when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences