Exam 1 Developmental Psych

child development

the scientific study of patterns of growth, change and stability that occur from conception through adolescence

physical development

examining the ways in which the body's makeup helps determine behavior

cognitive development

examining the ways in which the body's makeup helps determine behavior

social development

the way in which an individual's interactions with others and social relationships grow, change and remain stable over the course of life

personality development

the study of stability and change in the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another, ie personality traits

Topical areas in child development are:

physical, cognitive, social and personality

developmental stages

prenatal, infancy and toddlerhood, preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence

social constructions

a shared notion of reality that is widely accepted by our society/culture

cohort

a group of people born around the same time and place, experiencing similar events

history-graded influences

biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment (ex:cohort effect)

age-graded influences

biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals within a specific age group, regardless of. when or where they are raised

non-normative life events

specific, atypical events that occur in a person's life at a time when such events do not happen to most people

continuous change

development is gradual with achievements at one level building onto those at the next

discontinuous change

development occurs in distinct steps or stages, bringing behaviors that are completely different from behaviors at earlier stages

critical period

a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences

plasticity

the degree to which a developing behavior or physical structure is modifiable

sensitive period

a time which organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environment

maturation

the process of the predetermined unfolding of genetic information

developmental psychology

the psychology of development throughout the lifespan

developmental science

an interdisciplinary approach of how development works

theory

an orderly, integrated, evidence-based set of statements that describe, predict, and explain developmental changes

psychodynamic theory

behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories and conflicts which a person has little awareness or control over

behaviorism theory

focuses on direct, observable behaviors to drive how we understand development

social learning theory

learning can happen through modeling and social interaction

constructivist theory

as we develop, we are highly influenced by the environment around us (happens through stages)

information processing theory

people actively construct their own knowledge and adapt their behaviors based on new information on a continuous lens

cognitive neuroscience theory

using physiological processes to understand development

ethological/evolutionary theory

there is adaptive values to behavior that influence our development

ecological theory

studies relationships and contextual information from the social and physical environment around us

some contextual factors that can shape development are:

SES, education, cultural values, gender role expectations, societal norms, privilege/oppression, family dynamics, social relationships, religious affiliation, childhood trauma, etc

psychosocial development

changes in our interactions with others, of others; behavior, and of themselves; suggests development happens in eight distinct phases

classical conditioning

occurs when an organism is trained to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus

operant conditioning

a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened in association with positive or negative consequences

reinforcement

the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated

punishment

the introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal or a desirable stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will continue in the future

behavior modification

a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable stimuli to decrease the probability that a behavior will continue in the future

Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

an approach that emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model

The four steps of social cognitive learning are:

1) An observer must pay attention and perceive the model's behaviors 2) The observer must successfully recall the behavior 3) The observer must reproduce behavior 4)The observer must be motivated to learn and repeat that behavior

cognitive theory

a focus on the processes that allow people to know, understand and think about the world

Assimilation

the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current cognitive level

adaptation

the way in which children respond and adjust to new information

accommodation

changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events

Information-Processing Approaches

an approach that seeks to identify the ways in which individuals take in, use and store information

This approach assumes that even complex behaviors such as learning and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual, specific steps.

Information-Processing Approach

Metaphorically, our brain is like a _________ that processes and codes information in specific formats

computer

Neo-Piagetian Theory

Suggests that cognitive development proceeds quickly in certain areas and more slowly in others

cognitive neuroscience approach

an approach that looks at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes, specifically the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem solving, and other cognitive behavior

Contextual theory

a perspective that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality and social worlds

bioecological approach

suggests that five levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals

microsystem

everyday, immediate environment

mesosystem

direct and indirect influences in the microsystem/interactions between different environments

exosystem

broader influences such as societal institutions

macrosystem

the larger cultural influences on an individual

chronosystem

the passage of time, including historical events and changes

Sociocultural theory

emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

This theory focuses on the concept that there is a reciprocal transaction between a child's environment and the child themselves (ie environment influences child as the child also influences their environment), such as scaffolding

sociocultural theory

evolutionary theory

the theory that seeks to identify behavior is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

This theory focuses on how genetics and environment combined can influence behavior

evolutionary theory

ethology

a field that examines the way in which our biology makeup influences our behaviors

behavioral genetics

studies the effects heredity have on behavior

scientific method

the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and collection of data

The three main steps to this method are:

identifying questions of interest, formulating an explanation, and carrying out research

hypothesis

a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested

operationalization

the process of translating a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed

Correlation does not imply __________

causation

______________ research focuses on finding an association or relationship, while __________ research focuses on discovering causal relationships between various factors

a.) correlational b.) experimental

correlation coefficient

a number that represents that correlation between factors ranges from +1 (perfect positive correlation) and -1 (perfect negative correlation)

A positive correlation means that as one goes higher, the other ______

also increases

A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other ________

decreases

When there is no relationship the correlation coefficient is ___

zero

naturalistic observation

the observation of a naturally occurring behavior in it's natural environment without any intervention

ethnography

research with the goal of understanding a culture's values and attitudes through careful, extended examination

qualitative research

used to describe rather than quantify in research; generates hypotheses to test

case studies

extensive, in-depth interviews with particular individual or small groups of individual to draw general conclusions about a broad group of people

survey research

a group of individuals are chosen to represent some larger population is asked questions about attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic

psychophysiological methods

focuses on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior

experiment

a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for subjects or participants

treatment

the procedure applied by an experimental investigator based on two different experiences devised for subjects or pariticipants

treatment group

the group in an experiment that receives the treatment

control group

the group in an experiment that receives either no treatment or an alternative treatment

independent variable

the variable that researchers manipulate in the experiment

dependent variable

the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation

random assignment

participants are assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance and change alone

sample

the group of participants selected for an experiment

field study

a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting

laboratory study

research done in a laboratory or controlled setting

theoretical research

designed to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge

applied research

meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems

longitudinal research

the study of the behavior of one or more study participants is measured as they age

cross-sectional research

study of people of different ages that are compared at the same point in time

sequential studies

researchers examine a number of different age groups at several points in time

research

carefully planned and systematic way of answering one or more questions, following certain guidelines that will ensure that the answers are the most objective, valid and reliable that we can find

reliability

consistency or repeatability of results

interrater reliability

multiple people get the same results

test-retest reliability

you can get similar results taking the same test or experiment at another point in time

validity

does the research and study what it claims to

internal validity

the specific design of the study; does the individual study assess the results we claim to measure

external validity

the overall use and validity of the study; does it apply to the world outside of that study?

steps to research in applied psychology

1. Find a practical problem 2. Find a research topic 3. Create a research question 4. Finding research answers

cohort-sequential research design

choose two groups of children of different ages to follow for a reduced amount of times

the ________ research design combines that factors and benefits of both longitudinal and cross-section studies

cohort-sequential

Humans start out as a singular cell, in which the sperm pushes through the ovum creating a ______, eventually fusing to create a zygote

a.) gamete b.) zygote

Gametes

the sex cells from the mother and father that form a new cell at conception

zygote

the new cell formed by the process of fertilization

genes

the basic unites of genetic information

DNA

the substance that genes are composed of that determines the nature of every cell in the body and how it will function

chromosomes

rod-shaped poritons of DNA that are organized in 23 pairs

Sex cells in the ova and sperm contain half this amount to combine and create 23 pairs of ______

chromosomes

monozygotic twins

twins who are genetically identical

Sometimes a cluster of cells will separate from the ovum, which creates two genetically identical zygotes, making _________

monozygotic twins

When two separate ova and sperm are both fertilized roughly the same time, this results in ________

dizygotic twins

At fertilization, the ovum always provides an __ chromosome, and the sperm provides either an ___ or __ chromosome. If a chromosome is XX, this is a _____. If it is XY, it is a ____.

a.) X b.) X c.) Y d.) girl e.) boy

dominant trait

the one trait that is expressed when two competing traits are present

recessive trait

a trait within an organism that is present, but is not expressed

genotype

the underlying combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly visible) in an organism

phenotype

an observable trait; the trait that is actually seen

To receive a recessive (bb) trait, you must be ________ for the trait. For ____________(Bb) genes, you show the dominant trait

a.) homozygous b.) heterozygous

polygenic inheritance

inheritance in which a combination of multiple gene pairs is responsible for the production of a particular task

x-linked genes

recessive genes that are located only on the x-chromosome

Men are more susceptible to ________ than women because of the fact that men only have one X chromosome

x-linked genes

down syndrome

a disorder produced by the presence of an extra chromosome on the 21st pair; once referred to as mongolism

fragile x syndrome

a disorder produced by injury to a gene on the x chromosome, producing mild to moderate mental retardation

sickle cell anemia

blood disorder that gets its name from the shape of the red blood cells in those who have it

tay-sachs disease

a disorder that produces blindness and muscle degeneration prior to death; there is no treatment

klinefelter's syndrome

syndrome in males that is characterized by small testes and long legs and enlarged breasts and reduced sperm production and mental retardation resulting from the presence of an extra X chromosome

Just because a disorder has genetic roots does not mean that ______ does not play a role

environment

genetic counseling

the discipline that focuses on helping people deal with issues relating to inherited disorders

ultrasound sonography

a process in which high-frequency sound waves scan the mother's womb to produce an image of the unborn baby, whose size and shape can be then assessed

chorionic villus sampling

a prenatal test to detect birth defects at an early stage of pregnancy that involves taking samples from a hair-like material that surrounds the embryo

amniocentesis

the process of identifying genetic defects by examining a small sample of fetal cells drawn by a needle inserted into the amniotic fluid surrounding the unborn fetus

temperament

patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics in an individual

The environment in which a child is raised can have an effect on the _______ influenced behaviors and traits that they show

genetically

Multifactorial Transmission

the determination of traits by a combination of both genetic and environmental factors in which a genotype provides a range within which a phenotype may be expressed

fertilization

the process by which a sperm and an ovum- the male and female gametes, respectively- join to form a single new cell

germinal stage

the first- and shortest- stage of the prenatal period, which takes place during the first two weeks following conception

placenta

a conduit between the mother and fetus, providing nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord

embryonic stage

the period from 2 to 8 weeks following fertilization during which significant growth occurs in the major organs and body systems

fetal stage

the stage that begins at about 8 weeks after conception and continues until birth

fetus

a developing child, from 8 weeks after conception until birth

infertility

the inability to conceive after 12 to 18 months of trying to become pregnant

artificial insemination

a process of fertilization in which a man's sperm is placed directly into a woman's vagina by a physician

In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

a procedure in which a woman's ova are removed from her ovaries, and a man's sperm are used to fertilize the ova in a laboratory

teratogen

a environmental factor that produces a birth defect

fetal alcohol syndrome

cognitive disorder caused by the pregnant mother consuming substantial quantities or alcohol during pregnancy, potentially resulting in mental retardation and delayed growth in the child

fetal alcohol effects

a condition in which children display some, although not all, of the problems of fetal alcohol syndrome due to the mother's consumption of alcohol during pregnancy

the embryonic stage is characterized by:

the embryo develops three laters, which are the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm

The germinal stage is characterized by :

cell division and the attachment of the oragnism to the wall of the uterus (fertilization) and cell multiplication

the fetal stage is characterized by:

the rapid growth and refinement of organs and bodily functions to prepare the fetus for the outside world

Humans start out as a singular cell, in which the sperm pushes through the ovum creating a ________, eventually fusing to create a ________

a.) gamete b.) zygote

Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model

the concept that humans are influences by multiple different factors within their environment

the two main approaches of behavioral genetics are:

How much or a particular characteristic can be attributed to genes? How do genes and environment work together to shape unique behavioral characteristics of individuals?

range of reaction

our genetic make-up makes us respond in unique ways to the environment

canalization

genes restrict outcomes

genetic-environment correlation

our genes influence the environment they are exposed to

heritability rates

variations within a group; the portion of differences attributable to genetics

epigenetics

an emerging area of scientific research that examines how the environment influences the expression of our genes

our genotype influences the range of expression for a __________

phenotype

neonates

the term used for newborns

A protein called ___________ triggers the release of various hormones that being the process to birth

corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

When oxytocin levels become high enough the mother's uterus begins ______

periodic contractions

episiotomy

surgical incision of the perineum to enlarge the vagina and so facilitate delivery during childbirth

apgar scale

a standard measurement system that looks for a variety of indications of good health in newborns

apgar stands for

appearance (color), pulse (heart rate), grimace (reflex irritability), activity (muscle tone) and respiration (respiratory effort)

anoxia

a restriction of oxygen to the baby, lasting a few minutes during the birth process, which can produce brain damage

bonding

close physical and emotional contact between parent and child during the period immediately following birth, argued by some ti affect later relationship strength

There is little evidence for a ____________ in humans immediately after birth

critical bonding period

lamaze birthing technique

makes use of breathing techniques and relaxation training, in which mothers are "coached", typically by the father-to-be in weekly training sessions in which they learn exercises that help them to relax various parts of the body, which helps relax the body during labor

bradley method of childbirth

a method that prepares a mother for natural childbirth by providing education and exercises and nutrition and techniques of breathing and relaxation

hypnobirthing

involves a form of self-hypnosis during delivery that produces a sense of peace and calm, thereby reducing pain

water birthing

a practice in which a woman enters a pool of warm water to give birth

preterm infants

infants who are born prior to 38 weeks after conception, puts at high risk for illness or death

low-birthweight infants

infants that weigh less than 2,500 grams

very-low-birthweight infants

weight less than 1,250 grams or, regardless of weight, have been in the womb less than 30 weeks

postmature infants

infants still unborn 2 weeks after the mother's due date, also put at risk

Difficulties with __________ babies can be easier prevented, often involving inducing labor

postmature

small-for-gestational-age infant

an infant whose size and weight are considerably less than the average for babies of the same age

cesarean delivery (c-section)

a birth in which the baby is surgically removed from the uterus, rather than traveling through the birth canal

Fetal Monitor

a device that measures the baby's heartbeat during labor

stillbirth

the delivery of a child who is not alive, occurring in fewer than 1 delivery in 100

infant mortality

death within the first year of life

Postpartum depression, a period of deep depression following the birth of a child, affects some ___ percent of all new mothers

10

postpartum depression

a period of deep depression following the birth of a child

reflexes

unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

habituation

the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus

states of arousal

different degrees of sleep and wakefulness, ranging from deep sleep to great agitation

implantation

the organic process whereby a fertilized egg becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus

environmental influences on prenatal development are:

Diet/nutrition, exercise, Teratogens, Stressors, Age of mother/father, and Previous birth experiences

The embryonic period lasts for ___ weeks

6 weeks

At 12 weeks, the fetus starts to _____

move

What does the psychodynamic perspective state about behavior in development?

behavior is determined by underlying unconscious thoughts

what was the earliest views on child development?

Children in medieval Europe were viewed as tiny adults, and there was no "child status"

John Locke viewed a child as a _______

blank slate

Rossaeau argued that children were _______ and were born with an innate sense of right and wrong/morals

noble savages

In the 1700s Germany, children were mainly studied using ___________, recording milestones of their children

baby biographies

As the adult population increased, there became a bigger distinction between the _______ and _______ allowing them to focus on a child's personal growth and education

a.) adult b.) child

Who opened a new kind of preschool based on theories of how children naturally learn?

montesorri

How does gene canalization show the interaction between genetics and the environment when explaining behavior?

genes canalization restricts the possible outcomes, but behaviors can still change within a certain range based on environmental factors (ie resources given, home environment, etc) ex: a kid can have the genetic predisposition to be athletic, but may not be exposed to sports opportunities, etc

Which type of research design would be the most effective if a researcher is investigating motor skill milestones in children?

cohort-sequential

What is the difference between reliability and validity, and what makes them equally important in research?

reliability is whether you can get the same results again, while validity determines if your experiment is measuring what it is supposed to. Both are important because they help determine if your research is accurate or not.

Describe how culture can influence a child's development and provide and explain at least one example

Some possible examples: if culture promotes certain personality traits over others being in a social environment can encourage extroversion gender norms in different cultures whether a culture promotes certain skills over other (ie academic vs athletic) etc

What are some contextual factors that influence behavior?

SES, family dynamics, culture, etc

What can we learn from the Minnesota twin study and how does it relate to the conversation of nature vs. nurture?

it shoes how environment have a certain control over behaviors and personality, but large aspects (about 50%) are due to genetics

Which level in the Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model accounts for the influence of time and historical events like COVID-19?

chronosystem

What type of study allows us to understand cause-and-effect relationships?

experimental design

How does Exosystem differ from Mesosystem?

exosystem is the larger environment outside of direct influences, while the mesosystem is the interactions between different environments

Identify the key differences in Erikson's stages of Psychosocial Development

The stages are: trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role diffusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, ego-integrity vs despair

What's the differences between Critical Period and Sensitive Period?

a critical period is when an event has its greatest consequences while a sensitive period is when organisms are sensitive to environmental stimuli

What would be considered a teratogen?

drugs, diet, toxic chemicals, medications, etc

As it gets hotter, ice cream sales increase. this is a ______ correlation

positive