22.1 - The Scientific Revolution

• Most scholars thought the earth was an immovable entity at the center of the universe during the Middle Ages.

  • The moon, sun, and planets all travelled in perfect circular arcs around the earth, according to this belief.

  • This viewpoint appeared to be supported by logic.

  • After all, as the sun rose in the morning and set in the evening, it appeared to be moving around the planet.

• Beginning in the mid-fifteenth century, a few intellectuals published works that questioned the ancient thinkers' and church's teachings.

  • As these researchers replaced old assumptions with new theories, they ushered in what historians refer to as the Scientific Revolution in European thought.

• Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist, built on the new astronomical theories. Galileo learnt as a young man that a Dutch lens maker had created a device that could magnify far-off things.

  • In 1609, Galileo constructed his own telescope and used it to examine the cosmos.

• Both Catholic and Protestant officials were alarmed by Galileo's findings since they contradicted church teaching and authority.

  • People might doubt other religious doctrines if they believe the church is mistaken on this.

• The works of an ancient Greek physician named Galen were accepted as reality by European doctors during the Middle Ages.

  • Galen, on the other hand, had never dissected a human body. Instead, he had studied pig and other animal anatomy.

22.2: The Enlightenment in Europe

• John Locke, a philosopher, had a more optimistic view of human nature. He felt that people may improve themselves by learning from their mistakes.

  • They possessed the innate aptitude to regulate their own affairs and look after the welfare of society as sensible people.

  • Locke was an outspoken opponent of absolute monarchy and a proponent of self-government.

• François Marie Arouet was probably the most intellectual and influential of the philosophes.

  • He published almost 70 books of political writings, philosophy, and theatre under the pen name Voltaire.

• Voltaire frequently employed satire to defame his opponents.

• The growth of a more secular, or non-religious, perspective was a second result.

  • People began to publicly challenge their religious beliefs and the church's teachings during the Enlightenment.

  • People used to believe that the secrets of the cosmos were the work of God before the Scientific Revolution.

• A third result of faith in science and development was the emergence of individualism.

  • People began to look to themselves for guidance as they moved away from the church and aristocracy.

22.3: The Enlightenment in Europe

• Enlightenment principles influenced music styles as well. Composers like Johann Sebastian Bach of Germany and George Friedrich Handel of England dominated the European music scene.

  • These composers composed choral and organ music that was dramatic. Classical music evolved during the Enlightenment as a new, lighter, and more graceful style of music.

• Frederick II, Prussia's ruler from 1740 until 1786, dedicated himself to improving the country.

• Many religious freedoms were provided, censorship was reduced, and education was enhanced.

  • He also overhauled the justice system and outlawed torture. Frederick's changes, on the other hand, were only temporary.

  • He recognized that serfdom was unjust, but he did nothing to abolish it since he required the support of wealthy landowners.

  • As a result, he never attempted to alter the social order.

• Joseph II of Austria was the most radical royal reformer. Joseph II, Maria Theresa's son and successor, ruled Austria from 1780 to 1790.

  • He instituted legislative changes and press freedom. He also advocated religious liberty for all people, including Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews.

• In the early 1700s, Russia's ruler, Peter the Great, had campaigned for years to get a port on the Baltic Sea.

  • Catherine, too, desired access to the Black Sea. Her soldiers eventually took control of the Black Sea's northern shore after two wars with the Ottoman Turks.

• Russia also obtained access to the Ottoman-controlled straits that connect the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.

22.4 - The American Revolution

• Hostilities between the two sides worsened during the next decade. Some colonial authorities advocated for independence from the United Kingdom.

  • A group of colonists threw a huge shipment of British tea into Boston Harbor in 1773 to protest a tea import tax.

• To justify their independence, colonial leaders exploited Enlightenment ideas.

• They said that the colonists had begged for the same political rights as British citizens, but that the king had steadfastly refused.

  • As a result, the colonists had every right to revolt against a dictator who had violated the social contract.

• To justify their independence, colonial leaders exploited Enlightenment ideas. They said that the colonists had begged for the same political rights as British citizens, but that the king had steadfastly refused.

  • As a result, the colonists had every right to revolt against a dictator who had violated the social contract.

• The British were not about to relinquish control of their colonies without a battle. The two sides went to war shortly after the Declaration of Independence was published.

  • At first appearance, the colonists were doomed to succumb quickly.

  • Washington's ragged army was pitted against the well-trained warriors of the world's most powerful government.

• The 13 states formed a loose confederation in which they held the majority of the power in order to protect their authority.

  • As a result, the Articles of Confederation constructed a weak national government on purpose.

  • The executive and judicial branches did not exist. The Articles of Confederation, on the other hand, established only one branch of government: the Congress.